1 Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn 200 Years Together Russo-Jewish History
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So it’s all quite simple – it was just a mass escape from the harsh Soviet life to the easy Western one, quite understandable on a human level. But then what’s about “repatriation?” And what is the “spiritual superiority” of those who dared to leave over those who stayed in the “country of slaves”? In fighting in those days for emigration Soviet Jews loudly demanded: “Let my people go!” But that was a truncated quote. The Bible said: “Let my people go, that they may hold a feast unto me in the wilderness.” (Ex. 5:1) Yet somehow too many of those released went not into the desert, but to the abundance of America. *** Can we nonetheless say that in the early years of sudden and successful emigration to Israel, it was the Zionists beliefs and ambitions that acted as the prime stimulus for Jews to leave? The testimony of various Jewish writers would suggest not. “The Soviet situation of the end of the 1960s was one of Aliyah, not of a Zionist movement. There were many people psychologically ready to flee the USSR. What can be called a Zionist movement was entirely subsidiary to this group of people.”*53+ Those who joined makeshift centres dedicated to the actual study of Jewish history and culture “were mostly characterised by a complete lack of the careerism so common among the Soviet-Jewish intelligentsia. This was why they dedicated the entirety of their free time to Jewish affairs.”*54+ For them the “era of the Hebrew teachers” had started even as early as the end of the 1970s, and by the beginning of the 1980s these “Torah teachers were the only ones who still influenced the minds.”*55+ The motives of many others who emigrated are explained as follows: “The Soviet government has placed obstacles in the way of achieving the most important things – professional advancement,” and so “Jewry is in danger of degradation.”*56+ “They were driven into Jewishness, and then into Zionism … by their faceless bureaucratic nemesis.”*57+ “Many … had never encountered anti-Semitism or political persecution. What burdened them was the dead end that their lives as Soviet Jews had become – as bearers of a contradiction from which they could free themselves neither by ‘assimilation’ nor by their ‘Jewishness’”*58+ “There was a growing sense of incompatibility and sorrow”; “dozens and dozens of dolts … are dragging you into insignificance … are pushing you to the bottom.”*59+ So came the longing to escape the Soviet Union. “This bright hope, when a man under the complete control of the Soviet government could in three months become free … was genuinely exhilarating.”*60+ Of course, a complex emotional environment developed around the act of departure. A writer says: the majority of Soviet Jews are “using the same ‘Zionist’ door … they sadly leave that familiar, that tolerant Russia” (a slip, but one that is closer to the truth, as the author had meant to say “tolerated by” Jews)*61+. Or said thusly: “The vast majority decided to emigrate with their heads, while their insides,” that is to say concern with being part of a 411
country and its traditions, “were against.”*62+ No one can judge to what extent this was a “majority.” But as we’ve seen the mood varied from the good poetry of Liya Vladimorova: But for you my beloved, for you the proud, I bequest the memories and the departure to the then-popular joke: “Could the last person to leave please turn off the lights.” This growing desire to emigrate among Soviet Jews coincided with the beginning of the “dissident” movement in the USSR. These developments were not entirely independent: “for some of them *Jewish intellectuals+ ‘Jewish ethnic consciousness in the USSR’ was a new vector of intellectual development … a new form of heterodoxy,”*63+ and they regarded their own impatient escape from the country as also a desperately important political cause. In essence, the dilemma facing the Zionists at the start of the 20th century was repeated: if it is your aim to leave Russia, should you at the same time maintain a political struggle within it? Back then, most had answered “yes” to the struggle; now, most answered “no.” But an increasingly daredevil attitude to emigration could not but feed a similarly daredevil attitude to politics, and sometimes the daredevils were one and the same. So for example (in 1976) several activists in the Jewish movement — V. Rubin, A. Sharansky, V. Slepak — together made an independent decision to support the “Helsinki Group” of dissidents, “but this was regarded in Jewish circles as an unjustifiable and unreasonable risk,” as it would lead “to the immediate and total escalation of the government’s repression of Jewish activism,” and would moreover turn the Jewish movement “into the property of dissidents.”*64+ On the other side, many dissidents took advantage of the synchronicity of the two movements, and used emigration as a means of escape from their political battlefield for their own safety. They found theoretical justifications for this: “Any honest man in the USSR is an eternal debtor to Israel, and here is why…. The emigration breech was made in the iron curtain thanks to Israel … it protects the rear of those few people willing to oppose the tyranny of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union [CPSU] and to fight for human rights in the USSR. The absence of this ‘emergency exit’ would be deadly to the current democratic movement.”*65+ It has to be admitted that this is a very cynical justification, and that it says little good of the dissident movement as a whole. A hostile critic then noted: “these ‘opponents’ *of the CPSU+ are playing an odd game: they become involved in the democratic movement, already sure of an ‘emergency exit’ for themselves. But by this they demonstrate the temporary and inconsequential character of their activity. Do potential emigrants have the right to speak of changing Russia, or especially on behalf of Russia?”*66+ One dissident science fiction author (and later, after emigration, a Russian Orthodox priest) suggested this formulation, that Jewish emigration creates “a revolution in the mind of Soviet man”; “the Jews, in fighting for the right to leave, become transformed into fighters 412
for freedom” in general….”The Jewish movement serves as a social gland that begins to secrete the hormones of rights awareness;” it has become “a sort of ferment perpetuating dissidence.” “Russia is becoming ‘deserted,’” “that ‘abroad,’ so mythical before, is becoming populated by our own people,” “the Jewish Exodus … is gradually leading totalitarian Soviet Moscow to the plains of freedom.”*67+ This view was readily accepted and in the coming years came to be loudly trumpeted: “the right to emigrate is the primary human right.” It was repeated often and in unison that this was an “enforced escape,” and “talk about the privileged position Jews occupy with regards to emigration is slander.”*68+ Yes, taking a lifeboat from a sinking ship is indeed an act of necessity. But to own a lifeboat is a great privilege, and after the gruelling ordeals of half a century in the USSR Jews owned one, while the rest did not. Those more perceptive expressed a more conscientious feeling: “It is fine to fight for the repatriation of Jews, it is understandable, and it is fine to fight for the right to emigrate for everyone – that too is understandable; but you cannot fight for the right to emigrate but, for some reason, only for Jews.”*69+ Contrary to the self-satisfied theoreticians of emigration, and their belief that it brought all Soviet people closer to emigrating abroad and so partly freed them, in reality those unable to emigrate came to feel more hopeless, to an even greater extent fooled and enslaved. There were emigrants who understood this: “What is cruellest about this situation is that it is Jews who are leaving. It has bizarrely become a question of something akin to a certificate of authenticity.”*70+ Precisely. But they chose to blind themselves to this. What could the remaining residents of “totalitarian Moscow” think? There was a great variety of responses, from grievance (“You, Jews, are allowed to leave and we aren’t…”) to the despair of intellectuals. L.K Chukovksaya expressed it in conversation to me: “Dozens of valuable people are leaving, and as a result human bonds vital for the country are ripped apart. The knots that hold together the fabric of culture are being undone.” To repeat the lesson: “Russia is becoming deserted.” We can read the thoughtful comments of an emigrant Jewish author about this Departure: “Russian Jewry were pathfinders in their experiment to merge with the Russian people and Russian culture, they became involved in Russia’s fate and history, and, repulsed away as if by a similarly charged body, left.” (What an accurate and penetrating comparison!) “What is most stunning about this Departure is how, at the moment of greatest assimilation, voluntary it was…. The pathetic character of the Russian Aliyah of the 1970s … was that we were not exiled from the country on a king’s order or by the decision of party and parliament, and we were not fleeing to save ourselves from the whips of an enraged popular pogrom … this fact is not immediately obvious to the participants in this historical event.”*71+
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No doubt, the Jewish emigration from the USSR ushered in a great historical shift. The beginning of the Exodus drew a line under an epoch lasting two centuries of coerced co- existence between Jews and Russians. From that point every Soviet Jew was free to choose for himself — to live in Russia or outside it. By the second half of the 1980s each was entirely free to leave for Israel without struggle. The events that took place over two centuries of Jewish life in Russia – the Pale of Settlement,the escape from its stultifying confines, the flowering, the ascension to the ruling circles of Russia, then the new constraints, and finally the Exodus – none of these are random streams on the outskirts of history. Jewry had completed its spread from its origin on the Mediterranean Sea to as far away as Eastern Europe, and it was now returning back to its point of origin. We can see in both this spread and in its reversal a supra-human design. Perhaps those that come after us will have the opportunity to see it more clearly and to solve its mystery. Sources: [1] F. Kolker. Novyi plan pomoshchi sovetskomu evreistvu [A New Plan for Assistance to the Soviet Jewry]. // “22”: Obshchestvenno-politicheskiy i literaturniy zhurnal evreyskoy intelligentsii iz SSSR v Izraile [Social, Political and Literary Journal of the Jewish Intelligentsia from the USSR in Israel (henceforth – “22”)+. Tel-Aviv, 1983, (31), p. 145.
[2] V. Boguslavsky. Otsy i deti russkoi alii [Fathers and Children of Russian Aliyah+. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 176. [3] I. Domalsky. Tekhnologiya nenavisti [The Technology of Hate]. // Vremya i my: Mezhdunarodny zhurnal literatury i obshchestvennykh problem [Epoch and We: International Journal of Liter ature and Social Problems (henceforth – EW)]. Tel Aviv, 1978, (25), p. 106-107. [4] Ya. Voronel. U kazhdogo svoi dom [Everyone Has a Home]. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 150-151. [5] I. Domalsky. Tekhnologiya nenavisti [The Technology of Hate]. // EW. Tel Aviv, 1978, (25), p. 129. [6] D. Shturman. Razmyshleniya nad rukopisyu [Mulling over the Manuscript]. // “22”, 1980, 812), p. 133. [7] Aleksandr Galich. Pesni. Stikhi. Poemy. Kinopovest. Piesa. Statii [Songs. Verses. Poems. Movie-essay. Piece. Essays]. Ekaterinburg, U-Faktoriya, 1998, p.586. [8] Rani Aren. V russkom galute [In the Russian Galuth]. // “22”, 1981, (19), p. 133-135, 137. [9] G. Pomerantz. Chelovek niotkuda [A Man from Nowhere]. From G. Pomerantz, Unpublished. Frankfurt: Posev, 1972, p. 161, 166. [10] A. Voronel. Trepet iudeiskikh zabot [The Thrills of Jewish Worries]. 2nd Edition, Ramat-Gahn: Moscow- Jerusalem, 1981, p. 122. *11+ M. Deich. Zapiski postoronnego *Notes of an outsider+ // “22,” 1982, (26), p. 156. [12] R. Rutman. Ukhodyashchemu – poklon, ostayushchemusya – bratstvo [Farewell to those who leaves, brotherhood to those who stay]. // The New Journal, 1973, (112), p. 286. [13] V. Boguslavsky. V zashchitu Kunyaeva [In Defence of Kunyaev]. // “22”, 1980, (16), p. 176.
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[14] N. Ilsky. Istoriya i samosoznanie [The History and Consciousness]. // The Jews in the USSR, 1977, (15): citation from “22”, 1978, (1), p. 202. *15+ A. Eterman. Tretye pokolenie *The Third Generation+. Interview. // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 124. [16] V. Boguslavsky. U istokov [At the Origins+. Interview. // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 102, 105-108. [17] Ibid., p. 109. *18+ V. Boguslavsky. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 113. [19] V. Boguslavsky. Otsy i deti russkoi alii [Fathers and Chi ldren of Russian Aliyah+. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 176- 177. *20+ I. Oren. Ispoved *Confession+ // “22”, 1979, (7), p. 140. *21+ V. Boguslavsky. Otsy i deti russkoi alii *Fathers and Children of Russian Aliyah+. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 177 - 178.
[22] V. Boguslavsky. U istokov *At the Origins+. Interview. // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 121. [23] G. Fain. V roli vysokooplachivaemykh shveitzarov [In the Role of Highly Paid Doorkeepers]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1976, (12), p. 135. [24] I. Domalsky. Tekhnologiya nenavisti [The Technology of Hate]. // EW. Tel Aviv, 1978, (25), p. 106. *25+ R. Nudelman. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 141. [26] N. Rubinshtein. Kto chitatel? [Who is the Reader?] // EW, Tel Aviv, 1976, (7), p. 131. [27] E. Manevich. Letter to the editor. // EW, New York, 1985, (85), p. 230 -231. [28] V. Perelman. Krushenie chuda: prichiny i sledstviya. Beseda s G. Rosenblyumom [Collapse of the Miracle: Causes and Consequences. Conversation with G. Rosenblum]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1977, (24), p. 128. [29] Kratkaya Evreiskaya Entsiklopediya [The Short Jewish Encyclopedia (henceforth —SJE)]. Jerusalem, 1996. v. 8, p. 380. [30] A. Voronel. Vmesto poslesloviya [Instead of Afterword]. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 140. [31] V. Boguslavsky. Oni nichego ne ponyali *They still don’t get it+. // “22”, 1984, (38), p. 156. [32] F. Kolker. Novy plan pomoshchi sovetskomu evreistvu [A New Plan for Assistance to the Soviet Jewry]. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 144. [33] Yu. Shtern. Situatsia neustoichiva i potomu opasna [The Situation is Unstable and Therefore Dangerous]. Interview. // “22”, 1984, (38), p. 132, 133. [34] E. Manevich. Novaya emigratsiya: slukhi i realnost [New Emigration: the Rumors and Reality] . // EW, New York, 1985, (87), p. 107-108. [35] F. Kolker. Novy plan pomoshchi sovetskomu evreistvu [A New Plan for Assistance to the Soviet Jewry]. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 144. [36] V. Perelman. Oglyanis v somnenii [Look Back in Doubt]. // EW, New York, 1982, (66), p. 152. 415
[37] S. Tsirulnikov. Izrail – god 1986 [Israel, the Year of 1986] . // EW, New York, 1986, (88), p. 135. [38] G. Fain. V roli vysokooplachivaemykh shveitzarov [In the Role of Highly Paid Doorkeepers]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1976, (12), p. 135-136. [39] E. Manevich. Novaya emigratsiya: slukhi i realnost [New Emigration: the Rumors and Reality] . // EW, New York, 1985, (87), p. 111. *40+ E. Finkelshtein. Most, kotory rukhnul… *The Bridge that Had Collapsed+. // “22”, 1984, (38), p. 148. [41] E. Sotnikova. Letter to Editor. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1978, (25), p. 214. *42+ M. Nudler. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 138. [43] V. Perelman. Letter to Editor. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1977, (23), p. 217. [44] Yu. Shtern. Dvoinaya otvetstvennost [Dual Liability+. Interview // “22”, 1981, (21), p. 126. [45] E. Manevich. Novaya emigratsiya: slukhi i realnost [New Emigration: the Rumors and Reality]. // EW, New York, 1985, (87), p. 109-110. [46] G. Freiman. Dialog ob alie i emigratsii [The Dialog (with Voronel) on Aliyah and Emigration+. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 119. *47+ A. Eterman. Tretye pokolenie *The Third Generation+ Interview // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 126 [48] B. Orlov. Puti-dorogi “rimskikh piligrimov” *The Ways and Roads of “Roman Pilgrims”+ // EW, Tel Aviv, 1977, (14), p. 126. *49+ A. Voronel. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 117 -118. *50+ E. Levin. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 127. [51] A. Dobrovich. Letter to Editor. // “22”, 1989, (67), p. 218. *52+ A. Voronel. Vmesto poslesloviya *Instead of Afterword+. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 139 -141. *53+ V. Boguslavsky. Oglyanis v razdumye *Look Behind and Think+. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (2 4), p. 139. *54+ V. Boguslavsky. U istokov *At the Origins+. Interview. // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 105. *55+ A. Eterman. Tretye pokolenie *The Third Generation+. Interview // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 136 -140. [56] A. Voronel. Dialog ob alie i emigratsii [The Dial og (with G. Freiman) on Aliyah and Emigration+. // “22”, 1983, (31), p. 119. *57+ Lev Kopelev. O pravde i terpimosti *On Truth and Tolerance+. New York: Khronika Press, 1982, с. 61. *58+ Editorial. (R. Nudelman+ // “22”, 1979, (7), p. 97. [59] E. Angenits. Spusk v bezdnu *Descend into Abyss+. // “22”, 1980, (15), p. 166, 167. *60+ A. Eterman. Tretye pokolenie *The Third Generation+ Interview // “22”, 1986, (47), p. 125. [61] V. Boguslavsky. V zashchitu Kunyaeva [In Defence of Kunyaev]. // “22”, 1980, (16), p. 175. 416
[62] V. Lyubarsky. Chto delat, a ne kto vinovat [The Question Is Not Who Is Guilty, But What to Do]. // EW, New York, 1990, (109), p. 129. [63] B. Khazanov. Novaya Rossiya [The New Russia]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1976, (8), p. 143. [64] V. Lazaris. Ironicheskaya pesenka *Ironic Song+. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 207. [65] I. Melchuk. Letter to Editor // EW, Tel Aviv, 1977, (23), p. 213-214. *66+ V. Lazaris. Ironicheskaya pesenka *Ironic Song+. // “22”, 1978, (2), p. 200. [67] M. Aksenov-Meerson. Evreiskii iskhod v rossiiskoi perspective [The Jewish Exodus from Russian Point of View]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1979, (41). [68] G. Sukharevskaya. Letter to Editor. // Seven Days, New York, 1984, (51). [69] I. Shlomovich. Oglyanis v razdumye [Look Behind and Think]. Panel discussion. // “22”, 1982, (24), p. 138. [70] B. Khazanov. Novaya Rossiya [The New Russia] // EW, Tel Aviv, 1976, (8), p. 143. [71] B. Orlov. Ne te vy uchili alfavity [You Have Studied Wrong Alphabets]. // EW, Tel Aviv, 1975, (1), p. 127 -128.
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Chapter 27: About the assimilation. Author’s afterword When and how did this extraordinary Jewish status of “guests everywhere” begin? The conventional wisdom suggests that the centuries-old Jewish diaspora should be dated from the destruction of Jerusalem by Titus in AD70; and that, after being thrown out of their native land, the Jews began wandering around the world. However, it is not true because “the great majority of the Jews were already dispersed by that time; hardly more than one- eighth of the nation lived in Palestine.”*1+ The Jewish Diaspora had begun much earlier: “The Jews were mainly a dispersed nation by the time of the Babylonian captivity [6th century B.C.] and, possibly, even earlier; Palestine was only a religious and, to certain extent, a cultural center.”*2+ Scattering of the Jews was already foretold in the Pentateuch. “I will scatter you among the nations” (Leviticus 26:33). “Yahweh will scatter you among the peoples, and you shall be left few in number among the nations” (Deuteronomy 4:27). “Only a small part of the Jews had returned from the [Babylonian] captivity; many had remained in Babylon as they did not want to abandon their property.” Large settlements were established outside of Palestine; “large numbers of Jews concentrated … in major trade and industrial centers of the ancient world.” (For example, in Alexandria under Ptolemaic dynasty, Jews accounted for two-fifth of the population.) “They were, mainly, traders and craftsmen.”*3+ The Jewish-Hellenistic philosopher Philo Judaeus (who died in the middle of the 1st century, 20 years before the destruction of the Temple) states: “*The Jews+ regard the Holy City as their metropolis because the Holy Temple of Almighty God is situated there, and they call “homeland” the countries where they live, and where their fathers, grandfathers, great-grandfathers and ancient forebears lived, and where they were born and brought up.”*4+ Mikhail Gershenzon mused on the fates of the Jewish nation after the Babylonian captivity: “*The Jews+ took roots in foreign lands and, contrary to expectations, didn’t aspire to return to their old homeland.” “Just recall: the Kingdom of Judah was still there, yet most of the Jews were already scattered across the whole Middle East; the Second Temple still stood in all its splendor, but the Language of the Bible was no longer heard on the streets and in the houses of Jerusalem; everybody spoke either Syrian or Greek there.” Even back then the Jews were inclined to think: “We should not hold dear our national independence, we should learn to live without it, under foreign rule; we should not become attached to a land or to a single language.”*5+ Modern Jewish authors agree: “The Jews in the ancient world were scattered and established large centers in the Diaspora even before the collapse of Jewish nationhood.”*6+ “The nation which was given the Law did not want to return to its native country. There is |
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