1 Describe Old English Period and its peculiarities

1 Describe Old English Period and its peculiarities.
The Old English period, also known as the Anglo-Saxon period, lasted from the 5th to the 11th century. It was the time when the Germanic tribes, such as the Angles, Saxons, and Jutes, settled in Britain and established their own language and culture. The language spoken during this period is known as Old English, which is quite different from Modern English. Some of the peculiarities of Old English include:

Inflectional complexity: Old English is an inflected language, which means that word endings change to indicate grammatical function. This can make it difficult for modern English speakers to understand.

Vocabulary: Old English has many words that are no longer in use or have changed their meaning. Additionally, there are many words borrowed from other languages such as Latin and French.

Writing system: Old English was written using a runic alphabet, known as the futhorc, which was later replaced by the Latin alphabet.

Poetry: Old English poetry is known for its use of alliteration, which is the repetition of initial sounds in a line of poetry. Examples of Old English poetry include the epic poem "Beowulf" and the religious poem "The Dream of the Rood".

Literature: In this period, literature was primarily oral and religious texts, along with epic poetry. The most famous literary work of this period is "Beowulf", an epic poem that tells the story of a hero's battles against monsters and dragons.

Christianity: Christianity was introduced to England during this period and it had a significant impact on the culture, language, and literature.
2 Describe Middle English Period and its peculiarities.
The Middle English period lasted from the 11th to the 15th century. It was a time of significant change in the English language and culture, marked by the Norman Conquest of 1066, which brought the French-speaking Normans to England and introduced many French words and grammatical structures into the language. Some of the peculiarities of Middle English include:

Vocabulary: Middle English saw a significant influx of words borrowed from French, Latin, and other languages, which greatly expanded the vocabulary of the language.

Grammar: Middle English grammar became much simpler than Old English, as many inflections were lost and word order became more fixed.

Pronunciation: The pronunciation of Middle English was also different from Old English, with the Great Vowel Shift, which caused the pronunciation of the long vowels to change.

Writing system: The Latin alphabet was used to write Middle English, and it was during this period that the modern English spelling system began to develop.

Literature: Middle English literature saw a flourishing of poetry, prose, and drama, including such famous works as Chaucer's "Canterbury Tales", "Sir Gawain and the Green Knight" and "Pearl Poet"

Dialects: Middle English was spoken in various dialects across England, which can be seen in the variety of spellings and pronunciations found in written texts from this period.

Christianity: Christianity continued to be the dominant religion and it influenced much of the literature and art of the period.
3 Describe Renaissance and Humanism. Include the main representatives of the period.
The Renaissance was a cultural movement that began in Italy in the 14th century and spread throughout Europe in the following centuries. It was characterized by a renewed interest in the classical cultures of Greece and Rome, as well as by a focus on individualism and human potential. The main representatives of the period include:

Humanism: A key aspect of the Renaissance was the emergence of humanism, a philosophical and literary movement that emphasized the value and potential of human beings. Humanists believed that education, particularly in the classics, could help individuals reach their full potential and lead virtuous lives. Notable humanists of the period include Francesco Petrarca, Giovanni Boccaccio, and Desiderius Erasmus.

Art: The Renaissance saw a flowering of art, with many famous artists such as Leonardo da Vinci, Michelangelo, Raphael, Botticelli and many more. They revolutionized the art of painting, sculptures and architecture by introducing new techniques, themes, and styles.

Literature: The Renaissance also saw a great flourishing of literature, with many poets and writers creating works that reflected the new humanist ideals. Notable writers of the period include William Shakespeare, Christopher Marlowe, and Edmund Spenser.

Science: The Renaissance was also a period of great scientific and technological advancement, with figures such as Galileo Galilei, Andreas Vesalius, and Nicolaus Copernicus making significant contributions in areas such as astronomy, anatomy, and mathematics.

Religion: The renaissance was also a period where there was an increasing emphasis on individualism, which led to the questioning of the traditional religious teachings and the rise of protestantism, an important event that led to the split of Christianity in the Western world.

Overall, the Renaissance was a period of great cultural and intellectual achievement, marked by a renewed focus on the classical past and a belief in the potential of human beings.
4 Describe The Restoration Period and Puritan literature. Include the main representatives of the period.
The Restoration Period, also known as the Restoration era, was a time in English history that lasted from 1660 to 1700. It began with the return of King Charles II to the throne after the Commonwealth period and the Puritan Commonwealth, and ended with the Glorious Revolution of 1688. The main representatives of the period include:

Literature: Restoration literature is known for its focus on wit and elegance, with a particular emphasis on Restoration comedy, a genre of plays that dealt with the social and sexual mores of the upper class. Notable Restoration playwrights include John Dryden, William Wycherley, and George Etherege.

Puritan literature: The Restoration period was also marked by a continuation of the literary traditions of the Puritans, a religious group that had a significant influence on English society during the previous century. Puritan literature is known for its didactic and moralistic tone, with a focus on religious themes and the inner workings of the human soul. Notable Puritan writers include John Bunyan and Anne Bradstreet.

Poetry: The Restoration period saw the emergence of a new style of poetry, known as Restoration poetry, that emphasized elegance, wit, and the pleasures of life. Notable Restoration poets include John Dryden, Aphra Behn, and Thomas Shadwell.

Prose: The Restoration period also saw the emergence of new forms of prose such as the novel, and it was during this period that the first English novels were written, like Aphra Behn's "Oroonoko" and Daniel Defoe's "Robinson Crusoe"

Science: The Restoration period was also marked by the emergence of the Royal Society, an organization dedicated to promoting scientific research, and notable figures such as Robert Boyle and Isaac Newton made significant contributions in areas such as physics, chemistry, and mathematics.

Overall, the Restoration period was a time of great cultural and intellectual achievement, marked by the return of the monarchy, the emergence of new literary genres and styles, and the continued influence of the Puritans on English society and literature.
5 Describe the Enlightenment and its features.
The Enlightenment, also known as the Age of Reason, was a cultural and intellectual movement that emerged in the late 17th and 18th centuries in Europe and America. It was characterized by a focus on reason, rationality, and individualism, as well as a belief in the power of human beings to improve their own lives and the world around them through the use of reason and science. Some of the key features of the Enlightenment include:

Emphasis on reason and science: The Enlightenment was marked by a belief in the power of reason and science to understand and improve the world. This led to the emergence of new scientific discoveries, new technologies, and new forms of knowledge.

Criticism of tradition and authority: The Enlightenment was also marked by a critical attitude towards tradition and authority, with many Enlightenment thinkers advocating for the rejection of traditional beliefs and customs in favor of reason and individual freedom.

Focus on individualism: The Enlightenment was a period of great emphasis on individualism, with a focus on the rights, freedoms, and potential of individual human beings. This led to the emergence of new ideas about democracy, human rights, and the role of government in society.

Belief in progress: The Enlightenment was characterized by a belief in the possibility of human progress and the ability of human beings to improve their own lives and the world around them.

Literature: The Enlightenment was marked by a new kind of literature that reflected the new ideas and values of the period. This literature was often focused on the individual and the individual's experience and often sought to educate and enlighten the reader.

Some of the most famous representatives of the Enlightenment include: John Locke, Voltaire, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, Immanuel Kant, Adam Smith, and Benjamin Franklin.

Overall, the Enlightenment was a significant cultural and intellectual movement that had a profound impact on the world, marked by a focus on reason, rationality, and individualism, and a belief in the power of human beings to improve their own lives and the world around them through the use of reason and science.

6 Describe Romanticism in English literature and its main two generations.
Romanticism was a cultural and literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and America. It was characterized by a focus on emotion, imagination, and individualism, as well as a fascination with nature, the past, and the supernatural. In English literature, Romanticism is usually divided into two main generations:

First generation: The first generation of Romantic poets, which includes William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, William Blake, Robert Burns, and Thomas Gray, emerged in the late 18th century. They rejected the formal, neoclassical style of the 18th century, and instead emphasized the importance of imagination and emotion in literature. They celebrated nature, the common people, and the inner experience of the individual, and their works often reflected on the beauty and power of the natural world and the individual's relationship to it.

Second generation: The second generation of Romantic poets, which includes Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and George Gordon, emerged in the early 19th century. They built on the themes and ideas of the first generation, but their works were often more radical and challenging. They were also more politically engaged, and their works often dealt with issues such as revolution, freedom, and the rights of individuals. They also wrote about the darker side of human experience such as death and melancholic feelings.

Some of the key features of Romantic literature include:

Emphasis on emotion and imagination: Romantic literature is known for its emphasis on emotion and imagination, with a focus on the inner experience of the individual.

Celebration of nature: Romantic literature is also known for its celebration of nature, with many Romantic poets writing about the beauty and power of the natural world.

Interest in the past: Romantic literature is characterized by an interest in the past, particularly in the medieval and ancient worlds, and a fascination with folklore, myths, and legends.

Interest in the supernatural: Romantic literature is also known for its interest in the supernatural, with many Romantic poets writing about ghosts, monsters, and other supernatural beings.

Overall, Romanticism was a significant cultural and literary movement that had a profound impact on English literature, marked by a focus on emotion, imagination, and individualism, and a fascination with nature, the past, and the supernatural.
7 Who are regressive and progressive Romantic writers?
In Romantic literature, there are two main groups of writers: the "regressive" or "conservative" Romantics, and the "progressive" or "radical" Romantics.

The "regressive" or "conservative" Romantics are writers who were more traditional in their views and aesthetics, and they were more inclined to look back to the past for inspiration. They often celebrated the beauty and power of nature, the inner experience of the individual, and the importance of imagination and emotion in literature. They also valued the traditional forms and conventions of literature and sought to preserve them. Examples of these writers include: William Wordsworth, Samuel Taylor Coleridge, Robert Burns, and Thomas Gray.

On the other hand, the "progressive" or "radical" Romantics are writers who were more revolutionary in their views and aesthetics, and they were more inclined to look forward to the future. They often wrote about more controversial and political subjects, such as revolution, freedom, and the rights of individuals. They also valued innovation and experimentation in literature, and sought to push the boundaries of traditional forms and conventions. Examples of these writers include: Lord Byron, Percy Bysshe Shelley, John Keats, and George Gordon.

It is important to note that these distinctions are not always clear-cut and some authors may have elements of both progressive and regressive romanticism in their works.

8 What do you know about the core principles of Romanticism in general?
Romanticism was a cultural and literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in Europe and America. It was characterized by a focus on emotion, imagination, and individualism, as well as a fascination with nature, the past, and the supernatural. Some of the core principles of Romanticism include:

Emphasis on emotion and imagination: Romanticism places a strong emphasis on emotion and imagination, valuing the inner experience of the individual and the expression of personal feelings and thoughts in literature.

Celebration of nature: Romanticism celebrates nature, seeing it as a source of inspiration and a reflection of the inner workings of the human mind. They often wrote about the beauty and sublimity of nature, depicting it as a source of rejuvenation and a connection to the divine.

Interest in the past: Romanticism is characterized by an interest in the past, particularly in the medieval and ancient worlds, and a fascination with folklore, myths, and legends. This interest in the past is often used to contrast with the present and to critique the contemporary society.

Criticism of reason and society: Romanticism is often associated with a critique of the Enlightenment's emphasis on reason, and a criticism of the industrialization and urbanization of the society.

Interest in the supernatural: Romantic literature is also known for its interest in the supernatural, with many Romantic poets writing about ghosts, monsters, and other supernatural beings. This interest in the supernatural is often used to explore the darker side of human experience, and the unknown.

Emphasis on individualism: Romanticism emphasizes the importance of the individual and the individual's experience, and often valorizes the solitary, the misunderstood, and the outcast.

Overall, Romanticism is a complex and multifaceted movement, marked by a focus on emotion, imagination, and individualism, and a fascination with nature, the past, and the supernatural, and a critique of the dominant values and norms of the time.

9 Describe Gothic Romanticism in English literature and its main
characteristics.
Gothic Romanticism is a subgenre of Romantic literature that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in England. It is characterized by a focus on the dark, the supernatural, and the grotesque, as well as a fascination with the past, particularly the medieval period. Some of the main characteristics of Gothic Romanticism include:

Emphasis on the supernatural and the dark: Gothic literature is known for its focus on the supernatural and the dark, with stories often involving ghosts, monsters, and other supernatural beings. It also deals with the darker aspects of human nature such as fear, guilt, and the unknown.

Use of gloomy and mysterious settings: Gothic literature is often set in gloomy and mysterious locations, such as ruined castles, abandoned monasteries, and dark forests, and these settings serve to add an eerie and ominous atmosphere to the story.

Interest in the past, particularly the medieval period: Gothic literature is characterized by an interest in the past, particularly the medieval period, and a fascination with folklore, myths, and legends. This interest in the past is often used to contrast with the present, and to critique the contemporary society.

Use of the grotesque and the macabre: Gothic literature often features the grotesque and the macabre, with stories often involving scenes of horror and violence.

Emphasis on the individual's inner experience: Gothic literature emphasizes the individual's inner experience, and often deals with the darker aspects of the human mind such as fear, guilt, and the unknown.

Use of supernatural elements to explore social and psychological issues: Gothic literature often uses supernatural elements to explore social and psychological issues, such as the fear of change, the struggle for power, and the role of women in society.

Some of the most famous examples of Gothic Romanticism in English literature include, Mary Shelley's "Frankenstein", Bram Stoker's "Dracula", and Edgar Allan Poe's tales.

Overall, Gothic Romanticism is a subgenre of Romantic literature characterized by a focus on the dark, the supernatural, and the grotesque, as well as a fascination with the past, particularly the medieval period, and the use of these elements to explore social and psychological issues.

10 Describe Critical Realism in English literature and its main characteristics.

Critical Realism is a literary movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in England. It is characterized by a focus on social and political issues, as well as a commitment to realism and critical analysis. Some of the main characteristics of Critical Realism in English literature include:

Emphasis on social and political issues: Critical Realist literature is known for its focus on social and political issues, with stories often dealing with issues such as poverty, class inequality, and the struggles of the working class.

Use of realism: Critical Realist literature is characterized by a commitment to realism, with stories often depicting the lives and struggles of ordinary people in a realistic and accurate manner.

Use of critical analysis: Critical Realist literature often uses critical analysis to examine and critique the social and political issues depicted in the story.

Interest in the everyday: Critical Realist literature is characterized by an interest in the everyday, with stories often depicting the lives and struggles of ordinary people.

Use of satire and irony: Critical Realist literature often uses satire and irony to critique the social and political issues depicted in the story.

Emphasis on the individual's inner experience: Critical Realist literature emphasizes the individual's inner experience, and often deals with the darker aspects of the human

11 She-writers of the Victorian age.
Critical Realism is a literary movement that emerged in the late 19th and early 20th centuries in England. It is characterized by a focus on social and political issues, as well as a commitment to realism and critical analysis. Some of the main characteristics of Critical Realism in English literature include:

Emphasis on social and political issues: Critical Realist literature is known for its focus on social and political issues, with stories often dealing with issues such as poverty, class inequality, and the struggles of the working class.

Use of realism: Critical Realist literature is characterized by a commitment to realism, with stories often depicting the lives and struggles of ordinary people in a realistic and accurate manner.

Use of critical analysis: Critical Realist literature often uses critical analysis to examine and critique the social and political issues depicted in the story.

Interest in the everyday: Critical Realist literature is characterized by an interest in the everyday, with stories often depicting the lives and struggles of ordinary people.

Use of satire and irony: Critical Realist literature often uses satire and irony to critique the social and political issues depicted in the story.

Emphasis on the individual's inner experience: Critical Realist literature emphasizes the individual's inner experience, and often deals with the darker aspects of the human

12 The “Aesthetic Movement” in English literature and its principles?
The Aesthetic Movement, also known as the "Decadent Movement", was a literary and artistic movement that emerged in the late 19th century in England. It was characterized by a focus on beauty, art, and the pursuit of pleasure, as well as a rejection of traditional values and societal norms. Some of the main principles of the Aesthetic Movement include:

Emphasis on beauty and art: The Aesthetic Movement placed a strong emphasis on beauty and art, valuing the pursuit of beauty and pleasure above all else. This led to a focus on the decorative arts and a rejection of the functional and utilitarian.

Rejection of traditional values and societal norms: The Aesthetic Movement rejected traditional values and societal norms, and instead advocated for the pursuit of individual pleasure and self-expression.

Interest in the exotic and the unusual: The Aesthetic Movement was marked by an interest in the exotic and the unusual, with many Aesthetic writers and artists drawing inspiration from the cultures of the East, such as Japan and China.

Emphasis on the individual: The Aesthetic Movement emphasized the importance of the individual and the individual's experience, and often valorized the solitary, the misunderstood, and the outcast.

Use of symbolism: The Aesthetic Movement often used symbolism, which is often an important feature in Aesthetic literature, to express ideas and emotions in a subtle and indirect way.

13 What is the difference between genre and movement?

Genre and movement are two terms that are commonly used in literature and the arts, but they refer to different concepts.

Genre refers to a category or type of literature, such as poetry, drama, or fiction. It is determined by the form, style, and subject matter of the work, and it is used to classify literature into specific groups. Examples of genres in literature include: romance, science fiction, horror, fantasy, and mystery.

Movement, on the other hand, refers to a group of writers or artists who share similar ideas, styles, or themes. Movements are often defined by a specific period of time and are often associated with a particular cultural or historical context. Movements in literature include: Romanticism, Realism, Naturalism, and Modernism.

In summary, genre refers to the form, style, and subject matter of a work, while movement refers to a group of writers or artists who share similar ideas, styles, or themes.
24 What is a novel?
A novel is a long work of fiction that tells a story of human experience through the use of interconnected characters, events, and themes. It typically deals with the personal and social experiences of the characters and is usually written in prose form. They may be realistic or fantastical, contemporary or historical, and often address universal themes and questions.
25 Bildungsroman novel genre in English literature.
Bildungsroman is a genre of novel that focuses on the psychological and moral growth of the protagonist from youth to adulthood. The term "Bildungsroman" is German, and it literally means "novel of formation" or "novel of education." These novels typically follow the main character's journey from childhood or adolescence to adulthood, chronicling their experiences and the lessons they learn along the way. Examples of Bildungsroman novels in English literature include "David Copperfield" by Charles Dickens, "Great Expectations" by Charles Dickens, "The Catcher in the Rye" by J.D. Salinger, and "To Kill a Mockingbird" by Harper Lee.
26 What is an allusion in Literature?
An allusion is a reference to a well-known person, place, event, literary work, or work of art that a writer includes in their own writing. Allusions can be explicit, where the writer directly names the reference, or implicit, where the reference is implied. The purpose of an allusion is to add depth and complexity to the work by linking the story or characters to other stories, myths, or historical events. It also helps to create a connection between the reader and the author, making the text more relatable. Allusions are often used to evoke emotions, create symbolism, or to make a comparison. They can be found in poetry, drama, and fiction, as well as in non-fiction.
27 What’s a social novel?
A social novel, also known as a "condition-of-England" novel, is a type of novel that focuses on the social and political issues of the time period in which it was written. These novels typically portray the lives of the lower and working classes, and often address themes such as poverty, inequality, and social injustice. The social novel aims to raise awareness and criticism of the social and political issues of the era, and in some cases, to promote social reform. Some examples of social novels include "Oliver Twist" by Charles Dickens, "Hard Times" by Charles Dickens, "The Jungle" by Upton Sinclair, and "The Grapes of Wrath" by John Steinbeck.
28 Describe the historical novel genre and its origin in British Literature.
The historical novel is a genre of literature that is set in a past time period, usually more than fifty years before the time in which it was written. The historical novel typically recreates a realistic portrayal of the culture, society, and politics of the past time period it depicts, and often includes real historical figures as characters. The historical novel is not limited to a specific time period, it can be set in ancient, medieval, early modern, or modern times.

The historical novel genre has its origins in British literature, dating back to the 18th century, with works like Sir Walter Scott's "Waverley" (1814) being considered as one of the first historical novels. Scott's novels set in Scotland and England, set in the past and featuring historical figures and events, were extremely popular in his time and helped establish the historical novel as a literary genre. The historical novel continued to evolve throughout the 19th century, with authors such as Charles Dickens, William Thackeray, and George Eliot writing historical novels that focused on the social and political issues of their time period.

Historical novels have also played an important role in shaping the national identity and self-image of different countries. They can also serve as a tool for understanding the past and its influence on the present.
29 Why American Romanticism is referred to as Dark Romanticism?
American Romanticism, also known as "Dark Romanticism," is a literary movement that emerged in the late 18th and early 19th centuries in America. It is called "Dark Romanticism" because it is characterized by a focus on the darker aspects of human nature and society. Dark Romantics often explored themes such as guilt, sin, and the supernatural, and their works often had a melancholic or sinister tone.

Dark Romantics also believed that the individual is inherently depraved and the society is corrupt, so they often presented the characters in their stories as isolated and alone, struggling against the dark forces of nature and society. They also explored the idea of the "noble savage" and the concept of the "American wilderness" as a place of darkness and danger, but also of redemption.

Authors like Edgar Allan Poe, Nathaniel Hawthorne, and Herman Melville are considered as the leading figures of American Dark Romanticism. Their works, such as "The Raven" by Poe, "The Scarlet Letter" by Hawthorne, and "Moby-Dick" by Melville, often dealt with themes of guilt, sin, and the supernatural. They also explored the darker aspects of human nature and the corrupting influence of society.

In summary, American Romanticism is referred to as "Dark Romanticism" because of its focus on the darker aspects of human nature and society, and the melancholic or sinister tone of its works

30 What do you know about Dystopian novel genre and its specific features?
A Dystopian novel is a type of speculative fiction that depicts a future society in which the conditions of life are extremely bad and oppressive. Dystopian societies are often characterized by a lack of freedom, a lack of privacy, a lack of individual rights, and a lack of basic necessities such as food and shelter. They are often ruled by a totalitarian government, and the citizens are often kept in a state of ignorance and fear through the use of propaganda and surveillance.

Dystopian novels often explore themes such as the dangers of technology, the consequences of government control, and the importance of individual freedom. They often present a warning about the potential dangers of certain political or social trends, and encourage readers to question the values of their own society.

Specific features of dystopian novels include:

A society in which the conditions of life are extremely bad and oppressive

A lack of freedom, privacy, and individual rights
A totalitarian government or a highly centralized and controlling authority
Use of propaganda and surveillance to control the population
A focus on the dangers of technology, government control, and the loss of individual freedom
A warning about potential dangers of certain political or social trends
A bleak and gloomy atmosphere and a sense of hopelessness and despair
Examples of dystopian novels include "1984" by George Orwell, "The Handmaid's Tale" by Margaret Atwood, "The Hunger Games" by Suzanne Collins, "Fahrenheit 451" by Ray Bradbury, and "The Road" by Cormac McCarthy.
31 What do you know about Science-fiction novel genre and its specific features?
Science fiction is a genre of speculative fiction that typically deals with imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life. It often explores the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations, and can be used to comment on contemporary issues, such as environmental concerns, political issues, and the human condition.

Specific features of science fiction novels include:

The use of imaginative and futuristic concepts such as advanced science and technology, space exploration, time travel, parallel universes, and extraterrestrial life
The exploration of the potential consequences of scientific, social, and technological innovations
The use of science and technology as a lens through which to comment on contemporary issues such as environmental concerns, political issues, and the human condition
The use of scientific concepts and principles as a way to create a sense of realism and credibility for the story
The presence of a sense of wonder and exploration
The use of speculative elements such as the future, the unknown, and the unseen
Science fiction novels have a wide range of style and tone, they can be serious or comedic, action-packed or contemplative, they can be set in the far future or in a distant past, they can be set in space or on earth, and they can be set in different dimensions.

Examples of science fiction novels include "Dune" by Frank Herbert, "Foundation" by Isaac Asimov, "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" by Douglas Adams, "Ender's Game" by Orson Scott Card, and "Snow Crash" by Neal Stephenson