1. The first Germanic consonant shift. Grimm's Law. Verner's Law. The shift of stress

x— it fell into disuse because the very sound developed into some other sounds).

The sound dз marked by сз was also rendered by g or dg - singe, bridge. In French borrowings the same sound was marked according to the French tradition by j - judge, June.

The letter v was introduced to mark voiced fricative (it was its allograph u first, hence the name of the letter w).

The letter q always accompanied by u is introduced to denote either the consonant k or the cluster kw - quarter, queen.

Spelling habits affected unambiguous cases.

Long u was replaced by digraph ou, in the French tradition: hus - hous, mus - mous, ut - out; it was found in French words: trouble, couch; in final position, and occasionally in medial it was ow: hu- how; cu- cow, dun - down.

In some cases the sound u came to be represented by o, especially when it stood neighboring the letters with many vertical lines lufu - loue; cumen - comen etc.

Long sound o is now rendered by oo: fot, --> foot.

Long Old English e was marked either by a digraph ee or by simple e, and mute e was added at the end of the word: metan - mete, meete (to meet) or turned into ie; feld – field.

The consonant d gave way to digraph th —» doet, du, dreo —» that, thou, three;

The sibilant [tf] formerly rendered by c before or after front vowels was replaced by a digraph ch: cild, hwilc —> child which

The sound [d3] of various origin is marked by the letters j, g, dg -courage, joy, bridge.

The sound [s], formerly rendered by sc is rendered by the combinations sh and sch: scip, fisc,—> ship, fish.

The sound [k] formerly c before consonants is rendered by k -cnawan - knowen; cniht - knight.