1. The role of reflective teaching in teacher education

The role of reflective teaching in teacher education

In 1987, Donald Schon introduced the concept of reflective practice as a critical process in refining one's artistry or craft in a specific discipline. Schon recommended reflective practice as a way for beginners in a discipline to reco~ize consonance between their own individual practices and those of successful practitioners. As defined by Schon, reflective practice involves thoughtfully considering one's own experiences in applying knowledge to practice while being coached by professionals in the discipline (Schon, 1996). After the concept ofreflective practice was introduced by Schon, many schools, colleges, and departments of education began designing teacher education and professional development programs based on this concept. As the concept grew in popularity, some researchers cautioned that SCDEs that incorporated reflective practice in their teacher education programs were focusing on the process of reflective practice while sacrificing important content in teacher education (Clift et al, 1990). These researchers recommended that reflective teaching combine John Dewey's philosophy on the moral, situational aspects ofteaching with Schon's process for a more contextual approach to the concept of reflective practice. More recently, Boud and Walker (1998) also noted shortcomings in the way SCDEs were applying Schon's concept of reflective practice to teacher education. They took issue with what they considered to be a "checklist" or "reflection on demand" mentality, reflection processes with no link to conceptual frameworks, a failure to encourage students to · challenge teaching practices, and a need for personal disclosure that was beyond the capacity of some young teachers. Boud and Walker suggest that these weaknesses can be addressed when the teacher-coaches create an environment oftrust and build a context for reflection unique to every learning situation. Reflective practice has also been defined in terms of action research. Action research, in turn, is defined as a tool of curriculum development consisting of continuous feedback that targets specific problems in a particular school setting (Hopkins & Antes, 1990). As such, it has become a standard concept in teacher education programs. The teacher educator as researcher and role model encourages students to put theories they've learned into practice in their classrooms. The students bring reports oftheir field experiences to class and analyze their teaching strategies with their mentors and colleagues. This collaborative model of reflective practice enriches students' personal reflections on their work and provides students with suggestions from peers on how to refine their teaching practices (Syrjala, 1996).
Teachers working in schools, to be effective, will have to evaluate their own practices. This comes through the process of reflection. It is the key to successful learning for teachers and also for learners. It is an underpinning value, a necessary condition, to become a professional teacher. Being able to reflect on what, why, and how we do things, develop, and enrich our practices, is an essential characteristic of a good teacher. Reflection on one’s own experiences and assumptions, as part of the course and classroom enquiry; critical observation and reflective analysis of the practices of teaching, are some of the key components of professional growth of a teacher, and are crucial for being an effective teacher. Therefore, reflection can serve as a tool to improve upon one’s professional practices and expertise. Reflection helps the teachers improve upon their professional skills and identify their strengths and limitations as professionals. Reflection on the part of teachers stands for deliberate thinking and questioning all aspects of their teaching practices. Teachers need to think which aspects of their professional practices are most effective in the teaching context; which they would like to continue to use, and which ones need improvement. Reflection helps the teachers understand their context properly and devise alternative approaches to address the imminent emerging problems, which may arise during the course of teaching practice. Teacher Preparation “Teachers are expected to be reflective practitioners, competent to use multiple methods and techniques, to engage learners, keeping the socio-cultural context and experiences of the learners in mind” (National Curriculum Framework-2005). Subsequent changes in the teacher education programmes visualised in the National Curriculum Framework for Teacher Education (NCFTE-2009) and National Council for Teacher Education (NCTE) Regulations, 2014, also emphasised on the need for reflective practice in teaching. Therefore, in the immediate context, ‘reflective practice’ assumes the central focus of teacher education programmes, where the teacher’s pedagogy ought to change constantly and grow effectively to meet the needs of the diverse contexts through critical reflections by teachers on their own teaching-learning practices. Teacher education programmes need to help teachers enhance their capacities for constructing knowledge, dealing with various contexts, and creating child-friendly teaching-learning environment. (NCFTE-2009, pp. 20-21) recommended the following in this context:

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  “Teachers should be prepared to take care of the students and enjoy being with them, seek knowledge, own responsibility towards society and work to build a better world, develop sensitivity to the problems of learners with commitment to justice and zeal for social reconstruction.
  
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  Teachers should view learners as active participants in their own learning and not as mere recipients of knowledge. They need to enhance their capacity to construct knowledge, and ensure that learning shifts away from rote methods. Learning needs to be viewed as a search for meaning emanating from personal experiences, and knowledge generation as a continuously evolving process of reflective learning.
  
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  Teachers should be trained in organising learner-centered, activity-based, participatory learning experiences through play, projects, discussion, dialogue, observation, field visits, etc.
  
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  Teacher education should provide opportunities to teachers for reflection. • Teacher education programmes should be designed to engage prospective teachers with students in real contexts rather than teach them through theories alone. They should help teachers understand the psycho-social attributes and needs of learners, their special abilities and characteristics, their preferred modes of cognition, motivation and learning resulting from home and community socialisation.
  
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  Teacher education programmes should help prospective teachers to develop social sensitivity and consciousness, and finer human sensibilities.
  
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  Teacher education programmes should provide opportunities for teachers to broaden the curriculum (both school and teacher education), that include different traditional knowledge; and to connect school knowledge with community knowledge and life outside school.
  
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  Teacher education programmes should help teachers to appreciate the potential of hands-on experience as a pedagogical medium, both inside and outside the classroom.
  
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  In view of the many-sided objectives of teacher education, the evaluation protocol needs to be comprehensive and provide due place for the evaluation of attitudes, values, dispositions, habits and hobbies, in addition to the conceptual and pedagogical aspects through appropriate quantitative as well as qualitative parameters.
  

Reflective practice is used at both the pre-service and in-service levels of teaching. Coaching and peer involvement are two aspects of reflective practices seen most often at the pre-service level.
In a 1993 study on how student teachers develop the skills necessary for reflective teaching
during their field experiences, Ojanen explores the role of the teacher educator as a coach.
Teacher educators can most effectively coach student teachers in reflective practice by using students' personal histories, dialogue journals, and small and large-group discussions about their experiences to help students reflect upon and improve their practices. Kettle and Sellars (1996) studied the development of third- year teaching students. They analyzed the students' reflective writings and interviewed them extensively about their reflective practices. They found that the use of peer reflective groups encouraged student teachers to challenge existing theories and their own preconceived views of teaching while modeling for them a collaborative style of professional development that would be useful throughout their teaching careers. Several research studies have proved that critical reflection upon experience continues to be an effective technique for professional development. Freidus (1997) describes a case study of one teacher/graduate student struggling to make sense of her beliefs and practices about what constitutes good teaching. Her initial pedagogy for teaching was based on the traditions and practices of direct teaching. Her traditional socialization into teaching made it difficult for her to understand that her views of good teaching were being challenged in her practice. Implementing reflective teaching technique in her classroom enabled her to acknowledge and validate what shewas learning. Schon (1993) suggested that reflective teaching practice is a continuous process and involves learner thoughtfully considering one’s own experience in applying knowledge to practice while being taught by professionals. It helps the individual’s to develop their own personality. Gibbs’ (1988) reflective practice suggests that individuals develop analysis of feelings, evaluation of experience etc. Jasper (2003) associated reflective teaching practice with lifelong learning resulting in the development of autonomous, qualified and self-directed professionals. Engaging in reflective practice is associated with the improvement of the quality of care, stimulating personal and professional growth and closing the gap between theory and practice. Bartlett (1990) points out that becoming a reflective teacher involves moving beyond a primary concern with instructional techniques and “how to” questions and asking “what” and “why” questions that regard instructions and managerial techniques not as ends in themselves, but as part of broader educational purposes. Asking questions “what and why” gives certain power over individual’s teaching resulting in the emergence of autonomy and responsibility in the work of teachers. (Lieberman & Miller, 2000) pointed out that the practice of reflective teaching, reflective inquiry, and reflection-on practice, results in gaining of the personal and professional knowledge that is so important to being an effective teacher and in shaping children's learning. Han (1995) stated that, the process element of reflection emphasises how teachers make decisions, content stresses the substance that drives the thinking and reflective inquiry may set the stage for learning how to be a good teacher. Reflective teaching is a significant element in student teachers’ initial training programme. It has also been widely acknowledged by many researchers as an approach that could promo teachers’ professional development and improves the quality of teaching and learning. Jacobs, Vakalisa and Gawe (2011) contend that reflective teaching offers teachers the opportunity to renew their practice and to understand the effects of their teaching. They further stated thatreflective teaching provides information on how teachers connect with learners meaningfully thus promoting sound teaching and learning practice. Akbari (2007) suggests that reflective teaching will make teachers question clichés that they have learned during their formative years and will also enable them to develop more informed practice. Teachers will integrate the knowledge they have gained during pre-service training with their practical experiences and make informed choices based on the situations they find themselves.
Student teachers need to question their practices and be open to different possibilities in their teaching experiences. Yang (2009) indicates that critical reflection does not come naturally to most teachers, therefore appropriate opportunities for reflection should be provided to studentteachers. This suggests that reflectivity is a skill that needs to be acquired by learning and not by automatic occurrence. Teacher educators should apply this theory in classroom practice, in order to observe and reflects on the results so that the classroom becomes a kind of laboratory where the teacher can relate teaching theory to teaching practice. By adopting reflective teaching practices, the teacher educator imparts inspiration among teacher trainees, so as to enable them to practice the same in their teaching practice sessions.
Little has been done to investigate student teachers’ reflective experiences during practice
teaching. Griffiths (2000) argues that reflection is taken for granted rather than being made
explicit. There is an assumption that student teachers will automatically reflect on their
practices. This research study is a contribution on the discourse on reflective practice in an
initial teacher education programme. It also aims at suggesting strategies that could assist
student teachers to become reflective teachers. Some teachers may wonder why they should bother to reflect because they prepare well and try their best in class when they are teaching and spend untold hours (usually unpaid) grading papers after class. In addition they say that they are always trying to follow the million mandates sent from the administration, curriculum developers, school boards, and/or ministry of education officials, which leave little time or energy for reflecting on their teaching. However, when teachers engage in reflective practice, they have the opportunity to examine their relations with students, their values, their abilities, and their successes and failures in a realistic context. Teachers who engage in reflective practice can develop a deeper understanding of their teaching, assess their professional growth, develop informed decision-making skills, and become proactive and confident in their teaching. It is true as mentioned above that teachers are busy, so we must also be realistic with reflective practice in terms of who can do it and when, and so reflective practice in reality takes place along a continuum of opportunity, where teachers will vary in the opportunity to reflect given their context and their own personal psychological makeup. In other words, some contexts may make it impossible for teachers to organize together to reflect on their practices and, as such, individual teachers may only be able to reflect on their own individual practices and conceptions of their teaching. As a result, it may be unreasonable to expect all teachers to engage in reflection at every moment or stage of their teaching. However, certain activities can help teachers with their reflections at various stages of their careers and these are outlined in the section that follows

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