3. The Queensberry rules Boxing’s legal status

The boxing world

Economic impetus

By the early 20th century, boxing had become a path to riches and social acceptance for various ethnic and racial groups. It was at this time that professional boxing became centred in the United States, with its expanding economy and successive waves of immigrants. Famine had driven thousands of Irish to seek refuge in the United States, and by 1915 the Irish had become a major force in professional boxing, producing such standouts as Terry McGovern, Philadelphia Jack O’Brien, Mike (“Twin”) Sullivan and his brother Jack, Packey McFarland, Jimmy Clabby, and Jack Britton, among others. German, Scandinavian, and central European fighters also emerged. Outstanding Jewish fighters such as Joe Choynski, Abe Attell, Battling Levinsky, and Harry Lewis were active before 1915 and were followed by a second wave consisting of Barney Ross, Benny Leonard, Sid Terris, Lew Tendler, Al Singer, Maxie Rosenbloom, and Max Baer. Italian Americans to reach prominence included Tony Canzoneri, Johnny Dundee, Rocky Marciano, Rocky Graziano, Carmen Basilio, and Willie Pep.
African Americans also turned to boxing to “fight their way to the top,” and foreign-born Black boxers such as Peter Jackson, Sam Langford, and George Dixon went to the United States to capitalize on the opportunities offered by boxing. Of African American boxers, Joe Gans won the world lightweight championship in 1902, and Jack Johnson became the first Black heavyweight champion in 1908.
Before and after Jack Johnson won his title, prejudice against Black boxers was great. Gans was frequently forced by promoters to lose to or underperform against less-talented white fighters. Other Black fighters found it difficult or impossible to contend for championships, as white boxers refused to face them. For instance, John L. Sullivan refused to accept the challenges of any Black, and Sullivan’s successor, Jim Corbett, refused to fight the Black Australian Peter Jackson, although Jackson had fought Corbett to a 63-round draw before Corbett became champion. Jack Dempsey continued the tradition by refusing to meet the African American Harry Wills. During Jack Johnson’s reign as champion, he was hounded so relentlessly that he was forced to leave the United States.
Blacks nevertheless continued to pursue fistic careers, particularly during the Great Depression. In 1936 African American fighter Joe Louis was matched against German Max Schmeling in a bout that was invested with both racial and political symbolism. Louis lost to Schmeling in a 12th-round knockout. In 1937 Louis captured the world heavyweight title from James Braddock, but stated he would not call himself a champion until he had beaten Schmeling in a rematch. The fight occurred on June 22, 1938, and was seen on both sides of the Atlantic as a confrontation between the United States and Nazi Germany; the American press made much of the contest between an African American and an athlete seen as a representative of Aryan culture. Both Adolph Hitler and Franklin D. Roosevelt had personal meetings with their nation’s pugilist. Louis’s sensational 1st-round victory over Schmeling in the rematch was a pivotal moment for African American athletes, as Louis in victory quickly became a symbol of the triumph of world democracy for Americans of all races.
Other African Americans followed Louis, with Sugar Ray Robinson, Archie Moore, Ezzard Charles, Henry Armstrong, Ike Williams, Sandy Saddler, Emile Griffith, Bob Foster, Jersey Joe Walcott, Floyd Patterson, Sonny Liston, Muhammad Ali, Joe Frazier, and George Foreman winning world championships in various weight divisions. By the turn of the 21st century, African Americans were a dominant force in professional boxing, producing stars such as Sugar Ray Leonard, Marvelous Marvin Hagler, Thomas Hearns, Aaron Pryor, Larry Holmes, Michael Spinks, Mike Tyson, Evander Holyfield, Riddick Bowe, Pernell Whitaker, Shane Mosley, Bernard Hopkins, Roy Jones, Jr., and Floyd Mayweather, Jr.