50 Key Concepts in Theology

partly upon natural virtue (one’s innate character), partly on moral virtue
(one’s habits of behaviour), and partly on reason (which regulates and
moderates our emotions). Aristotle’s ethics are ‘teleological’ (see below)
because they are directed towards the practical goal of excellence.
Immanuel Kant (1724–1804) argued for a deontological ethic of duty. For
Kant, only universal ethical principles were rational, and this formed his
famous ‘Categorical Imperative’: ‘Act only according to that maxim by which
you can at the same time will that it should become a universal law.’
Alasdair MacIntyre (1929– ): a Catholic moral philosopher who argues
that we have lost an adequate vocabulary for discussing ethical issues. He
urges us to return to the virtues – or ‘practices’ – for our ethical vocabulary
and to a communitarian approach that allows the discussion of shared values.
Simone Weil (1909–43): a French philosopher who was exceptionally
scrupulous in her ethical approach, arguing that we must not cause any harm
to others. Weil starved herself to death in solidarity with French soldiers
suffering in World War II.
IDEAS
Antinomianism: the belief that the right course of action will be supplied
by the Holy Spirit, or some other form of inspiration.

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Casuistry: the adaptation of ethical principles to suit specific
circumstances.
Consequentialist ethics (or teleological ethics or utilitarian ethics): an
ethical approach based upon the outcomes, goals or consequences of an
action. Actions are ‘good’ if they bring about a good outcome.
Consequentialism allows that ‘the end justifies the means’. So, by contrast
with the deontologist, the consequentialist argues that it may be right to do the
wrong thing in order to bring about a good outcome.
Deontological ethics: the view, expressed by Kant, that we act ethically
when we fulfil our Christian duty to love, forgive, act justly, and so on. Kant
argued that right actions are right universally and not merely in particular
circumstances. This means that it is always correct to ‘do the right thing’ even
if the situation appears to demand otherwise.
Dialogical ethics: a procedural approach to ethics, advocated by Jürgen
Habermas, which takes right and wrong to be the product of cultural
conversation. Right and wrong are thus decided at any given time by the
prevailing consensus. The task of the dialogical ethicist is to set the rules of
dialogue, rather than to insist on a particular outcome.
Imitation of Christ: the ancient ethic, set out by Thomas à Kempis
(fifteenth century), of emulating Christ in one’s approach to life. The
contemporary practice of asking ‘What would Jesus do?’ (WWJD?) is a
modern version of the imitation of Christ.
Moral realism/ethical realism: the belief that our values are given
objectively.
Moral scepticism: the view – expressed, for example, by John Mackie in
Ethics: Inventing Right and Wrong – that ‘there are no objective values’.
Quandary ethics: a form of moral reasoning which gives priority to the
consideration of complex and apparently insoluble dilemmas.
Situation ethics: the application of ethical principles in specific contexts.
The best-known Christian situationist is Joseph Fletcher (1905–91): ‘The
situationist enters into every decision-making situation fully armed with the
ethical maxims of his community and its heritage, and he treats them with
respect as illuminator of his problems. Just the same he is prepared in any
situation to compromise them or set them aside in the situation if love seems
better served by doing so’ (Situation Ethics, 1966).
The Good: in Plato’s philosophy, the ultimate ethical reality.

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Theocratic ethics (or divine command ethics): the view that we can only
do the right thing by following direct commands from God set out in
Scripture or elsewhere.
Virtue ethics (or character ethics): the view that the goal of ethics is to
cultivate the Christian virtues within ourselves and apply these virtues
appropriately in our daily living. Alasdair MacIntyre and Stanley Hauerwas
advocated this view.
Virtues: admirable human characteristics that distinguish good people
from bad.
Voluntarism: in ethics, the belief that right conduct derives from the
expression of God’s will.
BOOKS
Gilbert Meilaender and William Werpehowski, The Oxford Handbook of
Theological Ethics (OUP, 2005)
James H. Burtness, Consequences: Morality, Ethics, and the Future
(Fortress Press, 1999)
Richard Holloway, Godless Morality (Canongate, 1999)
Anders Nygren, Agape and Eros (University of Chicago Press, 1982)
Alasdair MacIntyre, After Virtue (Notre Dame Press, 1984)

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