8. What is language competence?

10.What is table of specification or blue print? Preparing Test Specifications:
The second important step in the test construction is to prepare the test specifications. In order to be sure that the test will measure a representative sample of the instructional objectives and content areas we must prepare test specifications. So that an elaborate design is necessary for test construction. One of the most commonly used devices for this purpose is ‘Table of Specification’ or ‘Blue Print.’
Preparation of table of specification is the most important task in the planning stage. It acts, as a guide for the test construction. Table of specification or ‘Blue Print’ is a three dimensional chart showing list of instructional objectives, content areas and types of items in its dimensions.
11.What is determining the weightage to different content areas? How is it done?
Determining the weightage to different content areas:
The second step in preparing the table of specification is to outline the content area. It indicates the area in which the students are expected to show their performance. It helps to obtain a representative sample of the whole content area.
It also prevents repetition or omission of any unit. Now question arises how much weightage should be given to which unit. Some experts say that, it should be decided by the concerned teacher keeping the importance of the chapter in mind.
Others say that it should be decided according to the area covered by the topic in the text book. Generally it is decided on the basis of pages of the topic, total page in the book and number of items to be prepared. For example if a test of 100 marks is to be prepared then, the weightage to different topics will be given as following.
Weightage of a topic:
Total number of items/marks =number of pages in the topic
Total number of pages in the books
12.How to determine the difficulty level of the test? Calculating the item difficulty
Evaluating the Test:
Evaluating the test is most important step in the test con­struction process. Evaluation is necessary to determine the quality of the test and the quality of the responses. Quality of the test implies that how good and dependable the test is? (Validity and reliability). Quality of the responses means which items are misfit in the test. It also enables us to evaluate the usability of the test in general class-room situation. Evaluating the test involves following functions:
(a) Item analysis.
(b) Determining validity of the test.
(c) Determining reliability of the test.
(d) Determining usability of the test.

1. 
   Item analysis:
   

Item analysis is a procedure which helps us to find out the answers to the following questions:
a. Whether the items functions as intended?
b. Whether the test items have appropriate difficulty level?
c. Whether the item is free from irrelevant clues and other defects?
d. Whether the distracters in multiple choice type items are effective?
The item analysis data also helps us:
a. To provide a basis for efficient class discussion of the test result
b. To provide a basis for the remedial works
c. To increase skill in test construction
d. To improve class-room discussion.
Calculate item difficulty for each item by using formula:
Item difficulty = R x 100
T
Where R= Total number of students got the item correct.
T = Total number of students tried the item.
In our example (fig. 3.1) out of 32 students from both the groups 20 students have answered the item correctly and 30 students have tried the item.

1.Summative and formative assessment types. formative assessments are quizzes and tests that evaluate how someone is learning material throughout a course.Summative assessments are quizzes and tests that evaluate how much someone has learned throughout a course.Examples of summative assessment Nationwide assessments ,District assessments,End-of-unit or chapter tests,End-of-term or semester exams. Formative assessment provides a more positive experience for learners and can also be invaluable for us as teachers, to see if our lesson objectives have been attained and our overall goals have been achieved.Includes:Homework assignment, weakly quizzes, one minute reflection writing assignment.

2.Integrated skills assessment. Integrated Skills focuses on the four main English skills - reading, writing, speaking and listening. Assessment that incorporates several skills within one test to determine whether a student can tackle the complexity of real-world tasks in academia that require multiple skill sets, integrated skills tests require students to produce written or oral work that incorporates meaningful uses of source evidence, both conceptually - to comprehend, synthesize, and present ideas from sources – and through writing – to conform with stylistic convention for presenting ideas from sources, and acknowledging those sources. The four skills can be referred to as Receptive Skills (listening and reading) or Productive Skills (speaking and writing). Perhaps the easiest way to start integrating skills in your class is by combining the receptive and productive skills which are used across the same medium.
3.Vocabulary assessment. What is vocabulary knowledge scale? Vocabulary size, vocabulary depth.Think of usage before a course, during a course, and after a course. Uses of vocabulary assessment results Before a course:To identify students level for level placement purposes To help plan a courses vocabulary teaching (needs analysis) During a course To assess students progress in vocabulary learnt To evaluate if the learners have met the learning goals expected by the teacher for the words taught (receptive vs. productive, can they actually use the word in writing or speaking etc.) After a course Measuring end of course achievement Measuring progress (pre-post levels, comparing different tests at different times during the course to the final comprehensive test).This is an excellent way to measure ongoing progress learning individual words.A vocabulary knowledge scale measures how well you know and can use words on a rating scale. Vocabulary size tests Depth of knowledge Types of tests.
4.CEFR. Four broad domains in CEFR. Levels.The Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: Learning, Teaching, Assessment, abbreviated in English as CEFR or CEF or CEFRL, is a guideline used to describe achievements of learners of foreign languages across Europe and, increasingly, in other countries. The CEFR has three principal dimensions: language activities, the domains in which the language activities occur, and the competencies on which a person draws when they engage in them. Four broad domains are distinguished: educational, occupational, public, and personal. These largely correspond to register.A language user can develop various degrees of competence in each of these domains, and to help describe them, the CEFR has provided a set of six Common Reference Levels (A1, A2, B1, B2, C1, C2).The Common European Framework divides learners into three broad divisions that can each be further divided into two levels; for each level, it describes what a learner is supposed to be able to do in reading, listening, speaking and writing.
5.Brief history of standardized testing.We can trace the roots of the standardizing testing back to ancient China where, government jobs were assigned according to the scores of tests, mainly with questions about Confucian philosophy and poetry.
7What is Alternative Assessment? This is a method of evaluation that measures a student's level of proficiency in a subject as opposed to the student's level of knowledge. The overall goal of alternative assessment is to allow students to demonstrate their knowledge and execute tasks.Alternative assessment strategies include open-ended questions, exhibits, demonstrations, hands-on execution of experiments, computer simulations, and portfolios (Dietel et al., 1991) Portfolios: Portfolios consist of student work that displays mastery of skill of the task and expression (Kulieke et al., 1990). Paulson, Paulson, and Meyer (in Bailey, 1998) define portfolios as “ a purposeful collection of student work that exhibits the student’s efforts, progress, and achievements in one or more areas.
How to asses Speaking is a complex skill requiring simultaneous use of different abilities, because, here, speakers (learners) need to employ vocabulary, grammar, pronunciation, intonation, and organization of content of speech at the same time. No skill is so difficult to assess as speaking ability.
Two methods are used for assessing speaking skills. In the observational approach, the student's behavior is observed and assessed unobtrusively. In the structured approach, the student is asked to perform one or more specific oral communication tasks. His or her performance on the task is then evaluated. The task can be administered in a one-on-one setting -- with the test administrator and one student -- or in a group or class setting. In either setting, students should feel that they are communicating meaningful content to a real audience. Tasks should focus on topics that all students can easily talk about, or, if they do not include such a focus, students should be given an opportunity to collect information on the topic.

How to assess reading Traditionally, the purpose of learning to read in a language has been to have access to the literature written in that language. In language instruction, reading materials have traditionally been chosen from literary texts that represent «higher» forms of culture. This approach assumes that students learn to read a language by studying its vocabulary, grammar, and sentence structure, not by actually reading it. In this approach, lower level learners read only sentences and paragraphs generated by textbook writers and instructors. The reading of authentic materials is limited to the works of great authors and reserved for upper level students who have developed the language skills needed to read them. The communicative approach to language teaching has given instructors a different understanding of the role of reading in the language classroom and the types of texts that can be used in instruction. When the goal of instruction is communicative competence, everyday materials such as train schedules, newspaper articles, and travel and tourism Web sites become appropriate classroom materials, because reading them is one way communicative competence is developed. Instruction in reading and reading practice thus become essential parts of language teaching at every level.

How assess writing
Portfolio Portfolio assessment is typically used to assess what students have learned at the end of a course or over a period of several years. Course portfolios consist of multiple samples of student writing and a reflective letter or essay in which students describe their writing and work for the course. "Showcase portfolios" contain final drafts of student writing, and "process portfolios" contain multiple drafts of each piece of writing. Both print and electronic portfolios can be either showcase or process portfolios, though electronic portfolios typically contain hyperlinks from the reflective essay or letter to samples of student work and, sometimes, outside sources.
Timed-essay Timed essay tests were developed as an alternative to multiple choice, indirect writing assessments. Timed essay tests are often used to place students into writing courses appropriate for their skill level. These tests are usually proctored, meaning that testing takes place in a specific location in which students are given a prompt to write in response to within a set time limit. The SAT and GRE both contain timed essay portions.
Rubric A rubric is a tool used in writing assessment that can be used in several writing contexts. A rubric consists of a set of criteria or descriptions that guides a rater to score or grade a writer. The origins of rubrics can be traced to early attempts in education to standardize and scale writing in the early 20th century. Ernest C Noyes argues in November 1912 for a shift toward assessment practices that were more science-based.
Drawbacks speaking

Speaking test is the last of the four tests in IELTS. It consists of a face to face interview between the candidate and an IELTS trained examiner. The interview lasts for 11 to 15 minutes and is recorded on an audio-cassette. The test is divided into three phases.

In detailed and descriptive interviews, it is difficult to replicate all the feature of real life communication such as motivation, purposes and role appropriacy, so the test authenticity and criterion need to deal with the problem of reality. Regarding examiners’ steadiness, there is still no guarantee that candidates will be asked the same questions in the same manner, even by the same examiner.
A recent study by Brown asserts that “The interviewers differed…An analysis of verbal reports produced by some of the raters confirmed that these differences resulted in different impressions of candidate’s ability: in one interview the candidate was considered to be more ‘effective’ and ‘willing’ as a communicator than in the other”.
Another drawback of the IELTS interview is its formal context. In real life situation, mostly, we have to speak in informal context. As the requirements of speaking skill vary in both formal and informal context, the formal context of IELTS interview may not elicit and analyze speaking skill in its true sense. Moreover, the controlled conditions during the interview do not allow interviewee to speak as freely as one speaks in real life. Thus, the information elicited cannot be true representative of real life speaking skills
Different Language Proficiency Tests Students seeking to study or work in foreign countries need to appear for foreign language proficiency tests compulsorily. Many international institutions require students to secure a minimum score in order to get admission. Here are some of the popular foreign language tests that candidates with study abroad dream should be aware of:
IELTS The International English Language Testing System is another popular English language proficiency test. It is accepted in universities of all English-speaking nations like the UK, Ireland, Canada, Australia, New Zealand, and the US. It is jointly conducted by the British Council, IDP Education Australia and Cambridge English Language Assessment. IELTS is of two types: Academic and General Tests. Students can opt for either the computer-based online test or pen and paper-based.
TOEFL TOEFL (Test of English as a Foreign Language) is a widely popular and accepted language proficiency test. It is accepted in almost all universities and colleges in the USA and Canada. This test is conducted by ETS (Educational Testing Service). This test consists of 4 sections Reading, Listening, Writing and Speaking. One can opt for this language test either online or through pen and paper. The registration fee for the internet-based test is $185, while that of the paper-based offline test is $180. The internet-based test is the most popular and preferred mode of TOEFL. In the Reading section, students need to read 3-5 passages and answer 12-14 questions from each paragraph. The Listening section comes with 3-4 lectures with 6 questions each and 2-3 conversations with 5 questions each. For the Writing test, candidates have to write 2 essays within 50 minutes. As for the Speaking section, one has to answer 4 questions within 17 minutes.
13.Adminstration of the test: physical and phycological environment.

Administration means ad­ministering the prepared test on a sample of pupils. So the ef­fectiveness of the final form test depends upon a fair administra­tion. Gronlund and Linn have stated that ‘the guiding principle in administering any class room test is that all pupils must be given a fair chance to demonstrate their achievement of learning out­comes being measured.’ It implies that the pupils must be provided congenial physical and psychological environment during the time of testing. Any other factor that may affect the testing procedure should be controlled.

Physical environment means proper sitting arrangement, proper light and ventilation and adequate space for invigilation, Psychological environment refers to these aspects which in­fluence the mental condition of the pupil. Therefore steps should be taken to reduce the anxiety of the students. The test should not be administered just before or after a great occasion like annual sports on annual drama etc.
12.How to determine the difficulty level of the test? Calculating the item difficulty
Evaluating the Test:
Evaluating the test is most important step in the test con­struction process. Evaluation is necessary to determine the quality of the test and the quality of the responses. Quality of the test implies that how good and dependable the test is? (Validity and reliability). Quality of the responses means which items are misfit in the test. It also enables us to evaluate the usability of the test in general class-room situation. Evaluating the test involves following functions:
(a) Item analysis.
(b) Determining validity of the test.
(c) Determining reliability of the test.
(d) Determining usability of the test.
Item analysis:
Item analysis is a procedure which helps us to find out the answers to the following questions:
a. Whether the items functions as intended?
b. Whether the test items have appropriate difficulty level?
c. Whether the item is free from irrelevant clues and other defects?
d. Whether the distracters in multiple choice type items are effective?
The item analysis data also helps us:
a. To provide a basis for efficient class discussion of the test result
b. To provide a basis for the remedial works
c. To increase skill in test construction
d. To improve class-room discussion.
Calculate item difficulty for each item by using formula:
Item difficulty = R x 100
T
Where R= Total number of students got the item correct.
T = Total number of students tried the item.In our example (fig. 3.1) out of 32 students from both the groups 20 students have answered the item correctly and 30 students have tried the item.
19. How to assess listening skill

Knowing how to listen is the cornerstone to effective communication. Students cannot be successful in school if listening skills are not developed and honed. Teachers can assess students’ listening skills by conducting a few simple activities. Record the results from the activities and develop an action plan addressing how to improve listening skills if needed. If you believe hearing is a problem, and not listening advise the student’s parents to consult an audiologist.

Important elements in all Listening tests are the Listening stimuli the questions and the test environment.
First of all I want to mention about Listening stimuli. It should represent typical oral language and not consist of simply the oral reading of passages designed to be written material. The material should model the language that students might typically be expected to hear in the classroom,in various media or in conversations. Since Listening performance is strongly influenced by motivation and memory. The passages should be interesting and relatively short.
In regard to the questions multiple choice items should focus on the most important aspects of the passage-not trivial details and should measure skills from a particular domain. Answers designated as correct should be derived from the passage, without reliance on the student’s prior knowledge or experience. Questions and response choices should meet accepted psychometric standards for multiple choice questions.
Testing environment for listening assessment should be free or external distractions. If stimuli are presented by a test administrator ,the material should be presented clearly, with appropriate volume and rate of speaking.
20. Differences between testing assessment and evaluation

Education professionals make distinctions between assessment, evaluation, and testing. However, for the purposes of this tutorial, all you really need to understand is that these are three different terms for referring to the process of figuring out how much you know about a given topic and that each term has a different meaning. To simplify things, we will use the term "assessment" throughout this tutorial to refer to this process of measuring what you know and have learned.test or quiz is used to examine someone's knowledge of something to determine what he or she knows or has learned. Testing measures the level of skill or knowledge that has been reached.

Evaluation is the process of making judgments based on criteria and evidence.
Assessment is the process of documenting knowledge, skills, attitudes and beliefs, usually in measurable terms. The goal of assessment is to make improvements, as opposed to simply being judged. In an educational context, assessment is the process of describing, collecting, recording, scoring, and interpreting information about learning.
my learning about test and its principles of test
i learnt about principles of test while designing test teacher must consider following principle of test
validity
reliability
practicality
validity:is defined as the extent to which an assessment accurately measures what it is intended to measure. Reliability:A reliable test is consistent and dependable. If you give the same test to the same student or matched students on two different occasions, the test should yield similar result.
practicality :n effective test is practical. This means that it
Is not excessively expensive,
Stays within appropriate time constraints,
Is relatively easy to administer, and
Has a scoring/evaluation procedure that is specific and time-efficient.
A test that is prohibitively expensive is impractical. A test of language proficiency that takes a student five hours to complete is impractical-it consumes more time (and money) than necessary to accomplish its objective. A test that requires individual one-on-one proctoring is impractical for a group of several hundred test-takers and only a handful of examiners. A test that takes a few minutes for a student to take and several hours for an examiner too evaluate is impractical for most classroom situationsTests can have positive and negative effects, or backwash. Positive backwash refers to expected test effects. For example, a test may encourage students to study more or may promote a connection between standards and instruction. Negative backwash refers to the unexpected, harmful consequences of a test. For example, instruction may focus too heavily on test preparation at the expense of other activities.backwash from tests can involve individual teachers and students as well as whole classes and programs.

21 self and peer assessment

Peer assessment, or self-assessment, is a process whereby students or their peers grade assignments or tests based on a teacher’s benchmarks.[1] The practice is employed to save teachers time and improve students' understanding of course materials as well as improve their metacognitive skills. Rubrics are often used in conjunction with Self- and Peer-Assessment.[2]Saves teachers' time
Edit
Student grade assignments can save teacher's time[3] because an entire classroom can be graded together in the time that it would take a teacher to grade one paper. Moreover, rather than having a teacher rush through each paper, students are able to take their time to correct them. Students can spend more time on a paper because they only have to grade one and can therefore do a more thorough job.[4]

Faster feedback

Edit
Having students grade papers in class or assess their peers' oral presentations decreases the time taken for students to receive their feedback. Instead of them having to wait for feedback on their work, self- and peer-assessment allow assignments to be graded soon after completion. Students then don't have to wait until they have moved onto new material and the information is no longer fresh in their minds.[5]Pedagogical
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Teacher's evaluation role makes the students focus more on the grades not seeking feedback.[7] Students can learn from grading the papers[5] or assessing the oral presentations of others. Often, teachers do not go over test answers and give students the chance to learn what they did wrong. Self and peer assessment allow teachers to help students understand the mistakes that they have made. This will improve subsequent work and allow students time to digest information and may lead to better understanding.[8] A study by Sadler and Good found that students who self-graded their tests did better on later tests. The students could see what they had done wrong and were able correct such errors in later assignments. After peer grading, students did not necessarily achieve higher results.[9]Attitude
Edit
If self- and peer-assessment are implemented, students can come to see tests not as punishments but as useful feedback.[11] Hal Malehorn says that by using peer evaluation, classmates can work together for “common intellectual welfare” and that it can create a “cooperative atmosphere” for students instead of one where students compete for grades.[12] In addition, when students assess the works of their fellow students, they also reflect on their own works. This reflective process stimulates action for improvement.[13]Metacognitive
Edit
Through self- and peer-assessment students are able to see mistakes in their thinking and can correct any problems in future assignments. By grading assignments, students may learn how to complete assignments more accurately and how to improve their test results.[5]

22 continuous assessments

Continuous assessment means assessing aspects of learners' language throughout their course and then producing a final evaluation result from these assessments. It can be compared with a final or summative assessment, which only assesses the learner at the end of the course. Continuous assessment often provides a more accurate and complete picture of the learner's level and has a positive impact on learning.

Example
The learners are giving mini-presentations on their favourite films as a follow-up activity after reading about the history of cinema. The teacher evaluates their presentations and uses the results as part of their final result.

In the classroom
Continuous assessment can be made more relevant and motivating by asking the learners to decide which assignments and tasks will be assessed during the course.Continuous assessment is a form of educational examination that evaluates a student's progress throughout a prescribed course. It is often used as an alternative to the final examination systemContinuous assessment will often include some form of formative assessment. The formative assessment covers the range of informal diagnostic tests a teacher can use to assist the process of learning by their students. This may include activities such as weekly pop quizzes or preparatory assignments. Prescriptive but ungraded feedback ructional Research and Curriculum Evaluation, likens formative assessment to a cook tasting a soup before serving it to a guest. Despite its advantages, formative assessment can be time-consuming, and incentives in education systems tend to favor more objective assessments.[citation needed]

An advantage of formative assessment for learning is that it is ongoing. This allows for incremental feedback to identify problems at their earliest stages. For example, a student can correct conceptual errors before undertaking work on a term paper. As a student works on a topic, input from the teacher can inform, guide, and validate each step of the process. Cheating and plagiarism remain significant problems in academic settings. Compared to graded summative assessments like final exams, ungraded formative assessments reduce the temptation to cheat. This allows students to focus on learning instead of grades.Continuous assessment can help students learn in the following ways:

Continuous assessment can provide early indications of the performance of students.[citation needed]
An increased sense of inclusiveness: Continuous assessment provides students with a constant stream of opportunities to prove their mastery of material and sends the message that everyone can succeed if given enough time and practice. This reduces the anxiety around testing and heightens the emphasis on the learning itself.[citation needed]
Higher learning standards for all: In a system of continuous assessment, advanced students can progress through material at their own pace and remain engaged by pursuing more challenging work as they master the basics

23. Portfolio

What is a portfolio with example?
In the simplest terms, a portfolio is a collection of investments that includes stocks, bonds, cash and other types of assets. It's common to invest in different types of things like stocks, bonds and commodities, but all these things combined make up your portfolio.1) Showcase or Presentation Portfolio: A Collection of Best Work
These types of portfolios focus on the portfolio as a product and are also typically called professional portfolios, formal portfolios, or career portfolio.The showcase portfolio is often used to share a student’s best achievements or evidence of learning. Students are generally given the choice to decide what is published.

These sorts of portfolios can assist with self-marketing, online branding, or building a positive digital footprint. In higher education, we see commonly see showcase portfolios that highlight a student’s CV or resume to suit a particular purpose such as attracting potential employers.Process or Learning Portfolio: A Work in Progress

The second type of portfolio that we commonly see is more of a running record of learning. The purpose is to capture the learning process. It’s also called a development portfolio, a reflection portfolio, or a formative portfolio.

Entries and artifacts are added during the learning process. A process portfolio is not always a collection of a student’s best work; it can include a variety of learning attempts or unpolished documentation along with reflections on struggles and challenges.

These types of portfolios demonstrate a work in progress and allow for self-assessment and reflection.One trap you might want to try to actively avoid if you’re using process portfolios is the “digital dump”. That is, over time, students can end up adding a lot of artifacts to their portfolio without much organisation, reflection, or purpose. A process portfolio is a fabulous way to demonstrate learning as it happens but students may want to consider how to keep the portfolio well-organised and meaningful.Assessment Portfolio: Used For Accountability
The assessment portfolio is used to document what a student has learned, or demonstrate that they have mastered elements of the curriculum.

Here, reflective comments will focus on how artifacts align with curriculum objectives.

These types of portfolios may be more formal than a showcase or process portfolio. While they may be very useful within the school environment to provide evidence of learning to teachers and administrators, an assessment portfolio may be less useful for overall student development.

Assessment portfolios are commonly part of certification programs or even part of requirements for earning a degree.

8.What is language competence? Language competence Is a broad term which includes linguistic or grammatical competence, discourse competence, sociolinguistic competence, and strategic competence. The specific learning outcomes under the heading Language Competence deal with knowledge of the language and the ability to use that knowledge to interpret and produce meaningful texts appropriate to the situation in which they are used. Language competence is best developed in the context of learning activities or tasks where the language is used for real purposes, in other words, in practical applications.
Grammatical competence was seen to encompass “knowledge of lexical items and of rules of morphology, syntax, sentence-grammar semantics, and phonology”
Sociolinguistic competence was defined as involving knowledge of the sociocultural rules of language and of discourse. Sociolinguistic component – assesses the use of linguistic forms in language performance. For example when a student bumps into a professor, spilling her coffee on the professor’s dress, “Sorry!” would probably constitute an inadequate apology. This category assesses the speakers’ control over the actual language forms used to realize the speech function, in this case referred to as a speech act (such as, “sorry,” “excuse me,” “very sorry,” “really sorry”), as well as their control over register or formality of the uttera
Discourse competence was defined as the ability to connect sentences in stretches of discourse and to form a meaningful whole out of a series of utterances.
Strategic competence was seen to refer to “the verbal and nonverbal communication strategies that may be called into action to compensate for breakdowns in communication due to performance variables or due to insufficient competence ”
9Five general principles of assessment: practicality, reliability, validity, authenticity, washback
Principles of assessment serve as a guidelines to ensure that the test is useful, appropriate, effective, and plausible. There are five general principles of assessment:
Practicality Reliability ValidityValidity AuthenticityAuthenticity Washback
Practicality
This principle refers to the time and cost constraints during the construction and administration of an assessment instrument. Meaning that the test should be economical to provide. The format of the test should be simple to understand. Moreover, solving a test should remain within suitable time. It is generally simple to administer. Its assessment procedure should be particular and time-efficient.[4]
Reliability
The principle of reliability refers to the stability of scores over time and different raters.
There are four types of reliability:
Student-related which can be personal problems, sickness, or fatigue,
Rater-related which includes bias and subjectivity, Test administration-related which is the conditions of test taking process,
Test-related which is basically related to the nature of a test.
Validity
Validity refers to the tests that measure what it claims to measure.
Content validityvalidity Criterion validityvalidity Construct validity
Consequential validity Face validity
Authenticity The assessment instrument is authentic when it is contextualized, contains natural language and meaningful, relevant, and interesting topic, and replicates real world experiences.
Washback This principle refers to the consequence of an assessment on teaching and learning within classrooms. Washback can be positive and negative. Positive washback refers to the desired effects of a test, while negative washback refers to the negative consequences of a test. In order to have positive washback, instructional planning can be used.

10.What is table of specification or blue print? Preparing Test Specifications:

The second important step in the test construction is to prepare the test specifications. In order to be sure that the test will measure a representative sample of the instructional objectives and content areas we must prepare test specifications. So that an elaborate design is necessary for test construction. One of the most commonly used devices for this purpose is ‘Table of Specification’ or ‘Blue Print.’
Preparation of table of specification is the most important task in the planning stage. It acts, as a guide for the test construction. Table of specification or ‘Blue Print’ is a three dimensional chart showing list of instructional objectives, content areas and types of items in its dimensions.

11.What is determining the weightage to different content areas? How is it done?

Determining the weightage to different content areas:
The second step in preparing the table of specification is to outline the content area. It indicates the area in which the students are expected to show their performance. It helps to obtain a representative sample of the whole content area.
It also prevents repetition or omission of any unit. Now question arises how much weightage should be given to which unit. Some experts say that, it should be decided by the concerned teacher keeping the importance of the chapter in mind.
Others say that it should be decided according to the area covered by the topic in the text book. Generally it is decided on the basis of pages of the topic, total page in the book and number of items to be prepared. For example if a test of 100 marks is to be prepared then, the weightage to different topics will be given as following.
Weightage of a topic:
Total number of items/marks=number of pages in the topic