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G R O U N D I N G I N T H E T E A C H I N G A N D L E A R N I N G O F L 2 P R A G M A T I C S
Intuition and introspection
If we create a dialogue based on what we think people tend to say or how
they speak, these data would then be an example of the use of intuition.
Many L2 textbooks are, in fact, written based on the curriculum writers’
intuition. In later chapters, we will have a chance to take a closer look at 
language use in currently available textbooks (Chapter 8) and in naturally
occurring conversations (Chapter 9). For now, let us more broadly discuss
the use of intuition in the teaching of pragmatics.
Here is an example of how introspective data may be used that draw on
the teacher’s intuition:
Imagine that a student of yours comes to you and asks how you
would compliment someone in the language you teach. You think of
what you would say and respond to this student.
We often find textbook language unnatural and stilted. Given that many
textbooks are written based on the writer’s intuition, introspection is rarely
an effective means for producing pragmatic language samples. What we
believe we say is not necessarily consistent with what we actually say. Even
native speakers’ intuition about their own pragmatic use of language is 
not always accurate because much of the language use is unconscious and
automatic.
1
The use of intuition has in fact been characterized by socio-
logists as “notoriously unreliable”; even though we think we are aware of
societal norms, we are “under the mistaken impression that these norms
represent the actual speech patterns of the community.”
2
Pragmatic language use is in fact very complex, with a number of con-
textual factors influencing actual language use. For example, average native
speakers would most likely have difficulty providing a thorough description
of how they express politeness through intonation, pauses, hedges, word
choice, grammar, and discourse structures, for example. A full picture of
how pragmatics works cannot be obtained through quick introspection of
our own language behavior.
For this reason, we strongly discourage teachers from relying solely on
their intuition, even if they are native or fluent speakers of the language
they teach. Simply being a fluent speaking teacher does not qualify someone
1
Judd (1999); Kasper (1997).
2
Manes and Wolfson (1981: 16).

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C O L L E C T I N G D A T A R E F L E C T I N G T H E P R A G M A T I C U S E O F L A N G U A G E
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to be an effective teacher of pragmatics. Rather, it is awareness about prag-
matics (meta-pragmatic awareness), intercultural experience and sensitivity,
and a repertoire of teaching and assessment strategies in this area that qualify
us as competent teachers of pragmatics.
3
The research literature is a fruitful source of information for learning about
pragmatics-focused aspects of language use across various cultural contexts.
Given that research articles are not always accessible to practicing teachers,
one online resource may be useful. A website on speech acts housed under
the Center for Advanced Research on Language Acquisition (CARLA) at 
the University of Minnesota (http://www.carla.umn.edu/index.html
4
) has
compiled descriptions of speech acts (http://www.carla.umn.edu/speechacts/
descriptions.html
5
). This site carries research-based information on how six
speech acts are performed in multiple languages, which we will take a closer
look at in Chapter 4. In addition, teachers (and students alike) can collect
pragmatics data in their own communities through procedures such as
those described below.
Elicited data: discourse completion tasks (DCTs)
and role-plays
Another way to collect samples of pragmatic language is to elicit language
use from learners or pragmatically competent speakers of the language 
(typically native-speaking or highly fluent speakers). Speakers can be given a
scenario describing a situation and asked to write down or role-play what
they would say in that situation as in the following examples.
Examples of DCTs
You are enrolled in a large class at a major university in Minneapolis.
A week before one of your course papers is due, you notice that you
have three more major papers due the same week. You realize that it
is not possible to finish them all by their respective due dates and
decide to go to one of the instructors, Professor Johnson, to ask for an
3
Judd (1999); Kasper (2001); Meier (2003).
4
Accessed on December 20, 2009.
5
Accessed on December 20, 2009.

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