A01 cohe4573 01 se fm. Qxd

1
reference to the listener’s ability (used in all of the four languages);
2
reference to the listener’s willingness;
3
predicting the listener’s doing the act; and
4
formulaic suggestions.
31
Blum-Kulka et al. (1989); Blum-Kulka and Olshtain (1984: 203).

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G R O U N D I N G I N T H E T E A C H I N G A N D L E A R N I N G O F L 2 P R A G M A T I C S
Non-conventionally indirect strategies (requestive hints)
In making requestive hints, the speaker/writer uses a lack of clarity as a way
of getting the listener to carry out the act that is implicitly requested.
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There is a gap between the requester’s intended meaning and the literal
meaning, and the recipient is not expected to process the requester’s utter-
ance word-for-word but rather to infer the intended message. The lack of
clarity leaves the recipient uncertain as to the requester’s intentions, and 
at the same time leaves the requester the option of denying the recipient’s
interpretation of the request. The recipient also has the option of rejecting
the interpretation that the requester has in fact made a request.
Some examples of hints are:
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It’s cold in here. (when uttered as a request to close the window)
I love this chocolate but it’s so expensive I could not afford it. (when used as a
request that the recipient of the remark buy chocolate for the speaker)
Do you have any money on you? (when used as a request for a loan)
You must have had a beautiful party. (when used as a request to clean up
the kitchen the morning after)
Husband: Do you know where today’s paper is?
Wife: I’ll get it for you.
Requests are among the most researched speech acts, and the empirical
information, such as that cited above, has been utilized in recent L2 teach-
ing. You can see some of them in Chapter 7 and on the Teaching Pragmatics
website.
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Conversational implicature
Conversational implicature is an inferential message or the process through
which the speaker/writer and the listener/reader derive meaning. The mean-
ing of an utterance is understood through inference in terms of the context,
rather than through direct reference.
35
While most utterances are expected
to be truthful, appropriately informative, relevant, and clear,
36
at times
32
Blum-Kulka et al. (1989).
33
Blum-Kulka et al. (1989: 73).
34
Bardovi-Harlig and Mahan-Taylor (2003: available online).
35
Bouton (1994a: 88).
36
Grice (1975).

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D E S C R I B I N G S P E E C H A C T S : L I N K I N G R E S E A R C H A N D P E D A G O G Y
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speakers/writers choose not to abide by these principles and convey meaning
indirectly. In such cases, listeners look for another non-literal interpretation
for this conversational implicature that fits the context.
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Below are several
classifications and examples of conversational implicature:
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1 Irony
Example: Bill is referring to his best friend Peter who danced with
Bill’s wife while Bill was away:
Bill: Peter knows how to be a really good friend. (Implying that Peter is
not acting the way a good friend should.)
2 Relevance maxim
This is based on the principle that the intended message must be relevant to
the ongoing conversation despite its literal meaning.
Example: Frank talks to his wife, Helen:
Frank: What time is it, Helen?
Helen: The mail carrier has been here. (Telling Frank approximate time
based on the regularity of the mail carrier’s deliveries.)
Frank: Okay. Thanks.
3 Minimum requirement rule
Example: Mr Brown is applying for a loan at the bank to build a new
barn:
Banker: Do you have 50 cows, Mr Brown?
Mr Brown: Yes, I do (Indicating that he has at least 50 cows and maybe
more, which is the minimum he needs to apply for a loan).
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Bouton (1994a, 1994b).
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The classification and examples are from Bouton (1994a) and (1994b). See these
articles for more details of each context.

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