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T H E N U T S A N D B O L T S O F P R A G M A T I C S I N S T R U C T I O N
F I G U R E 6 . 1 Elephant in the spotlights
one part of a complex phenomenon – may not tell the whole story and, in
fact, may be misleading. We need to group together the observations for
each component in order to arrive at a comprehensive understanding of the
phenomenon in question.
As language educators, we generally do not have access to what is going
on inside our students’ heads and do not follow them around to check out
how they actually use the L2 in their social network. We are in some ways
like the blind men when it comes to understanding the phenomenon of 
language learning. While a probe that we make to understand learners’ cogni-
tive processing can be of value, at best it provides only a limited picture of
this multi-faceted phenomenon. A more holistic approach to understanding
the development of pragmatic ability would entail shining a spotlight on
more aspects involved in language learning and consider, among other
things, how learners’ sociocultural being is linked to their pragmatic use.
Researchers in second language acquisition (SLA) have offered theoretical
frameworks that facilitate our understanding of how language learning
works. Let us first look at the basic tenets of one of them, which has come to
be called the Noticing Hypothesis. This hypothesis helps us explain an
important cognitive learning of L2 pragmatics, and suggests how teachers
can assist in this process. In addition, given the social and cultural nature of
language learning and use, we will consider three other interdisciplinary

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L A N G U A G E - A C Q U I S I T I O N T H E O R Y A N D T E A C H I N G P R A G M A T I C S
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frameworks, those related to identity, speech accommodation, and second
language socialization. These theoretical frameworks are useful in attempt-
ing to account for social, cultural, psychological, and affective (emotional)
factors that can influence L2 pragmatic learning and use. This chapter will
also make a brief reference to other frameworks that can help to explain
pragmatics-focused language learning.
Cognitive frameworks relating to L2 pragmatic
development
Among the theoretical frameworks relevant to L2 language development 
are the noticing hypothesis,
2
the output hypothesis,
3
the interaction hypo-
thesis,
4
and sociocultural theory.
5
We will now briefly discuss the basics of
each of them below in this order with a focus on the first. These frameworks
help us justify the awareness-raising approach currently being promoted in
L2 pragmatics instruction.
Noticing, awareness, and attention
The noticing hypothesis in second language acquisition (SLA) has been ex-
tended to its sub-discipline, the realm of L2 pragmatics learning.
6
According
to this framework, attention and awareness can be viewed as inseparable, like
two sides of the same coin. Attention is seen as a variety of mechanisms or
subsystems that control access to awareness. Attention is limited and selec-
tive in nature, managing access to consciousness and leading to the control
of action and learning.
7
According to this framework, pragmatic informa-
tion must be consciously attended to for the learning of pragmatics to take
place. When pragmatic information is noticed, whether attended to deliber-
ately or inadvertently, the input has the potential to become intake and
may be stored in long-term memory.
8
Then what pragmatic aspects should learners attend to? Does each of the
specific attributes need to be attended to in processing, or is global attention
sufficient? In this framework, attention must be directed not only to global
attributes but also to specific, focused aspects of the L2. So with regard to the
2
Schmidt (1990, 1993, 2001).
3
Swain (1998); Swain and Lapkin (1995).
4
Long (1985, 1996); Long et al. (1998).
5
Vygotsky (1978).
6
Kasper and Schmidt (1996); Schmidt (1990, 1993, 2001).
7
Schmidt (2001).
8
Kasper and Schmidt (1996); Schmidt (1993, 2001).

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