Alexander pope (1688–1744)

And proses are, An Essay on Criticism,

Preface to The Iliad of Homer.
AGE OF JOHNSON

The general prose to age of Johnson is that in this period profound changes took place in the spirit of English society. People of age wanted something more natural and spontaneous in thought and language. People were quickened into fresh activity by the renaissance of the feelings. This was an Important fact in the history of this period of transition. The emotions, long repressed, were reinstated. In Pope's time, contemporary society, had been unspiritual. In the great evangelistic revival led by Wesley and Whitefield, the old formality was swept away and a mighty tide of spiritual energy poured into the church and among the masses of the people. The evangelists made their appeal directly to the emotional nature. Handel's "Messiah" foretold the coming change. The spread of the humanitarian spirit quickens the rapid growth of democracy. People were familiar with the notions of liberty equality and the rights of man. French writer Rousseau's slogan 'Back to Nature' sent a strange thrill through the whole European World. There is Revolution in Literature too. There was a steady triumph of the new.

The Age of Johnson, often referred to as The Age of Sensibility, is the period in English literature that ranged from the middle of the eighteen century, until 1798. Ending the Age of Johnson, the Romantic Period arrived in 1798 with the publication of Lyrical Ballads by poets William Wordsworth and Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
Writers of The Age of Johnson focused on the qualities of intellect, reason, balance, and order. One of Johnson’s most lasting legacies is his Dictionary of the English Language (1755). While this huge undertaking of Johnson’s was neither the first dictionary in existence, nor exceptionally unique, it was the most used and admired until the appearance of the Oxford English Dictionary in 1928. One of Johnson’s most fervently held beliefs was that the language of the people should be used in literature, and that a writer should avoid using grammar and vocabulary that did not appeal to the common reader.
While The Age of Johnson and The Age of Sensibility are terms often used interchangeably, Johnson’s age is considered to be the last of neoclassical eras, while writers in latter period are famed with an anticipation of the Romantic Period with their focus on the individual and imagination.
The Age of Sensibility is marked by works that focus more directly on anticlassical features of old ballads and new bardic poetry. These writers began to embrace new forms of literary expression formerly avoided by writers of the Age of Johnson such as medieval history and folk literature. Classic prose fiction examples from the Age of Sensibility include Laurence Stern’s Tristram Shandy (1759) and Henry Mackenzie’s The Man of Feeling (1771). The poetry of William Collins, William Cowper, Thomas Gray, and Christopher Smart are also attributed to the Age of Sensibility.
Samuel Johnson (1709-1784), poet, critic, and author of fiction, is the namesake for this period in literature. Johnson wielded considerable influence over this era with the works that focused on neoclassical aesthetics (the study of natural and artistic beauty with an eye toward the great classical writers). Johnson and his fellow writers placed great emphasis on the values of the Enlightenment which stressed the importance of using knowledge, not faith and superstition, to enlighten others, and let to the expansion of many social, economic, and cultural areas including astronomy, politics, and medicine.
Johnson has been described as "arguably the most distinguished man of letters in English history". He is also the subject of "the most famous single work of biographical art in the whole of literature": James Boswell's Life of Samuel Johnson(1791). His early works include the poems "London" and "his most impressive poem" "The Vanity of Human Wishes" (1749). Both poems are modelled on Juvenal’s satires. After nine years of work, Johnson's A Dictionary of the English Language was published in 1755; it had a far-reaching effect on Modern English and has been described as "one of the greatest single achievements of scholarship." This work brought Johnson popularity and success. Until the completion of the Oxford English Dictionary 150 years later, Johnson's was viewed as the pre-eminent British dictionary. His later works included essays, an influential annotated edition of William Shakespeare's plays (1765), and the widely read tale Rasselas (1759). In 1763, he befriended James Boswell, with whom he later travelled to Scotland; Johnson described their travels in A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland (1786). Towards the end of his life, he produced the massive and influential Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–81), a collection of biographies and evaluations of 17th- and 18th-century poets. Through works such as the "Dictionary, his edition of Shakespeare, and his Lives of the Poets in particular, he helped invent what we now call English Literature".
The second half of the 18th century saw the emergence of three major Irish authors Oliver Goldsmith (1728–1774), Richard Brinsley Sheridan (1751–1816) and Laurence Sterne (1713–68). Goldsmith settled in London in 1756, where he published the novel The Vicar of Wakefield (1766), a pastoral poem The Deserted Village (1770) and two plays, The Good-Natur'd Man 1768 and She Stoops to Conquer 1773. This latter was a huge success and is still regularly revived. Sheridan was born in Dublin into a family with a strong literary and theatrical tradition. The family moved to England in the 1750s. His first play, The Rivals 1775, was performed at Covent Garden and was an instant success. He went on to become the most significant London playwright of the late 18th century with plays like The School for Scandal and The Critic. Both Goldsmith and Sheridan reacted against the sentimental comedy of the 18th-century theatre, writing plays closer to the style of Restoration comedy. Sterne published his famous novel Tristram Shandy in parts between 1759 and 1767.
The sentimental novel or the novel of sensibility is a genre which developed during the second half of the 18th century. It celebrates the emotional and intellectual concepts of sentiment, sentimentalism, and sensibility. Sentimentalism, which is to be distinguished from sensibility, was a fashion in both poetry and prose fiction beginning in the eighteenth century in reaction to the rationalism of the Augustan Age. Sentimental novels relied on emotional response, both from their readers and characters. They feature scenes of distress and tenderness, and the plot is arranged to advance emotions rather than action. The result is a valorization of "fine feeling," displaying the characters as a model for refined, sensitive emotional effect. The ability to display feelings was thought to show character and experience, and to shape social life and relations. Among the most famous sentimental novels in English are Samuel Richardson's Pamela, or Virtue Rewarded(1740), Oliver Goldsmith's Vicar of Wakefield (1766), Laurence Sterne's Tristram Shandy (1759–67), Sentimental Journey(1768), Henry Brooke's The Fool of Quality (1765–70), Henry Mackenzie's The Man of Feeling (1771) and Maria Edgeworth's Castle Rackrent (1800).
Another novel genre also developed in this period. In 1778, Frances Burney (1752–1840) wrote Evelina, one of the firstnovels of manners. Social behaviour in public and private settings accounts for much of the plot of Evelina. This is mirrored in other novels that were particularly popular at the beginning of the 19th century, especially those of Jane Austen. Fanny Burney's novels indeed "were enjoyed and admired by Jane Austen".
The Romantic movement in English literature of the early 19th century has its roots in 18th-century poetry, the Gothic noveland the novel of sensibility. This includes the graveyard poets, who were a number of pre-Romantic English poets, writing in the 1740s and later, whose works are characterized by their gloomy meditations on mortality, "skulls and coffins, epitaphs and worms" in the context of the graveyard. To this was added, by later practitioners, a feeling for the sublime’ and uncanny, and an interest in ancient English poetic forms and folk poetry. They are often considered precursors of the Gothic genre. The poets include; Thomas Gray (1716–71), whose Elegy Written in a Country Churchyard (1751) is "the best known product of this kind of sensibility"; William Cowper (1731–1800); Christopher Smart (1722–71); Thomas Chatterton (1752–70); Robert Blair (1699–1746), author of The Grave (1743), "which celebrates the horror of death”; and Edward Young (1683–1765), whose The Complaint, or Night Thoughts on Life, Death and Immortality (1742–45), is another "noted example of the graveyard genre". Other precursors of Romanticism are the poets James Thomson(1700–48) and James Macpherson (1736–96).
James Macpherson (1736–96) was the first Scottish poet to gain an international reputation. Claiming to have found poetry written by the ancient bard Ossian, he published translations that acquired international popularity, being proclaimed as a Celtic equivalent of the Classical epics. Fingal, written in 1762, was speedily translated into many European languages, and its appreciation of natural beauty and treatment of the ancient legend has been credited more than any single work with bringing about the Romantic movement in European, and especially in German literature, through its influence on Johann Gottfried von Herder and Johann Wolfgang von Goethe. It was also popularised in France by figures that includedNapoleon. Eventually it became clear that the poems were not direct translations from the Gaelic, but flowery adaptations made to suit the aesthetic expectations of his audience. Both Robert Burns (1759–96) and Walter Scott (1771–1832) were highly influenced by the Ossian cycle.
Significant foreign influences were the Germans Goethe, Schiller and August Wilhelm Schlegel and French philosopher and writer Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712–78). Edmund Burke's A Philosophical Enquiry into the Origin of Our Ideas of the Sublime and Beautiful (1757) is another important influence. The changing landscape, brought about by the industrial and agricultural revolutions, with the expansion of the city and depopulation of the countryside, was another influence on the growth of the Romantic movement in Britain. The poor condition of workers, the new class conflicts and the pollution of the environment, led to a reaction against urbanism and industrialization and a new emphasis on the beauty and value of nature.
During the end of the 18th century, Horace Walpole's 1764 novel The Castle of Otranto, created the Gothic fiction genre, that combines elements of horror and romance. The pioneering gothic novelist Ann Radcliffe introduced the brooding figure of the gothic villain which developed into the Byronic hero. Her most popular and influential work The Mysteries of Udolpho1795, is frequently cited as the archetypal Gothic novel. Vathek 1786 by William Beckford, and The Monk 1796 by Matthew Lewis, were further notable early works in both the gothic and horror literary genres. The first short stories in the United Kingdom were gothic tales like Richard Cumberland's "remarkable narrative" "The Poisoner of Montremos" (1791).

This century is marked by some events like The Glorious Revolution in 1688 in England, a near-bloodless overthrow of the Stuart dynasty and King James II of England. The War of Spanish Succession from 1701 to 1714, a war to preserve the balance of power. War of the Austrian Succession from 1740 to 1748, The King dies and a considerable controversy over who would take his position. The Seven Year’s War from 1756 to 1763. The American Revolution from 1775 to 1783, this revolution was truly revolutionary, for it aimed to throw the British monarch and establish a government of the people. It was based on Enlightenment ideals, and it drew from the idea that America was to be a special nation, a kind of ‘light to the nations’ which from the blood-soaked plains of Europe would be seen as a haven of peace, prosperity, and piety. The influence of this war was disproportionately large.

 The French Revolution from 1789 to 1799 was undoubtedly the most significant event of the eighteenth century; it was also perhaps the second most significant event of the second millennium, after the Reformation. It was the ‘coming of age’ of secular humanism, and in many ways it was an exact portrait of the story that would be played out in countless dictatorships of the twentieth century. The French Revolution was world Revolution. As G. V. Prinsterer says, “The Revolution is a unique event. It is a revolution of beliefs; it is the emergence of a new sect, of a new religion; of a religion which is nothing but irreligion itself, atheism, the hatred of Christianity raised into a system.” “I take the Revolution in its world-historical idea. It did not exist in its complete form before 1789. But since then it became a world-power and the battle for or against it fills history.’’
This century was a century of contrasts – refined aristocratic fashion and brutal slavery and revolution. It was marked by violent wars, and Americans rightly thought of continental Europe as a perpetual bloodbath.