Английского

§ 6. In the light of the exposed characteristics of the categories, we 
may specify the status of grammatical paradigms of changeable 
forms. 
Grammatical change has been interpreted in traditional terms of 
declension and conjugation. By declension the nominal change is 
implied (first of all, the case system), while by conjugation the 
verbal change is implied (the verbal forms of person, number, 
tense, etc.). However, the division of categories into immanent and 
reflective invites a division of forms on a somewhat more consis-
tent basis. 
Since the immanent feature is expressed by essentially independent 
grammatical forms, and the reflective feature, correspondingly, by 
essentially dependent grammatical forms, all the forms of the first 
order (immanent) should be classed as "declensional", while all the 
forms of the second order (reflective) should be classed as "conju-
gational". 
In accord with this principle, the noun in such synthetical lan-
guages as Russian or Latin is declined by the forms of gender, 
number, and case, while the adjective is conjugated by the same 
forms. As for the English verb, it is conjugated by the reflective 
forms of person and number, but declined by the immanent forms 
of tense, aspect, voice, and mood. 
CHAPTER IV
GRAMMATICAL CLASSES OF WORDS 
§ 1. The words of language, depending on various formal and 
semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets or 
classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called 
"parts of speech". Since the word is distinguished not only by 
grammatical, but also by semantico-lexemic properties, some 
scholars refer to parts of speech 

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as "lexico-grammatical" series of words, or as "lexico-grammatical 
categories" [Смирницкий, (1), 33; (2), 100]. 
It should be noted that the term "part of speech" is purely tradi-
tional and conventional, it can't be taken as in any way defining or 
explanatory. This name was introduced in the grammatical teach-
ing of Ancient Greece, where the concept of the sentence was not 
yet explicitly identified in distinction to the general idea of speech, 
and where, consequently, no strict differentiation was drawn be-
tween the word as a vocabulary unit and the word as a functional 
element of the sentence. 
In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the ba-
sis of the three criteria: "semantic", "formal", and "functional". The 
semantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalised 
meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words consti-
tuting a given part of speech. This meaning is understood as the 
"categorial meaning of the part of speech". The formal criterion 
provides for the exposition of the specific inflexional and deriva-
tional (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part 
of speech. The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role of 
words in the sentence typical of a part of speech. The said three 
factors of categorial characterisation of words are conventionally 
referred to as, respectively, "meaning", "form", and "function".