Biology biology

BIOLOGY
Biology (Greek: bíos, bios, "life"; and lógos, logos, "knowledge") is the study of life and related issues. It is a field of empirical science that studies the structure, functions, change, origin, evolution and death of living organisms. It sorts out various organisms, describes their functioning, the emergence of species, and their relationships with each other and with the environment. Biology is divided into different branches such as botany, zoology, physiology. Biology appears as a science that unifies the system of knowledge about living nature. Because the evidence previously studied in this science is brought to certain systems from the point of view of history, and their sum makes it possible to determine the basic laws of the organic world. It is based on these laws that rational use of nature, its protection and restoration are carried out. Currently, the following research methods are used in various fields of biology. These include observational, comparative, historical, and experimental methods. Tracking method. It is one of the earliest methods that can be used to describe and describe any biological phenomenon. Later, this method was widely used to identify species. K. Linnaeus achieved great success in this field. This method has not lost its importance even today. Biology (bio... and..logy) is a set of sciences about living nature. B. studies all forms of life: the structure and function of living organisms and natural communities, the origin and distribution of living beings, their interrelationship with each other and with the natural world. The main task of B. is to study the laws of manifestation of life, to reveal the essence of life, to systematize living organisms. The term "B" was first proposed by J. B. Lamarck and G. R. Treviranus in 1892. This term is also found in the works of T. Rose (1797) and K. Burdach (1800).
System of biological sciences. B. consists of several subjects. According to the object of research, B. is divided into botany (the science that studies plants), zoology (the science that studies animals), human anatomy and physiology (the science that studies the structure and function of the human body), microbiology (the science that studies microorganisms) and hydrobiology (the science of organisms living in water). . These subjects, in turn, are divided into smaller branches. At the same time, a number of complex sciences were formed due to the merging of B. sciences with each other and with other sciences (for example, cytogenetics, cytoembryology, ecological genetics, ecological physiology). B. disciplines can be divided into separate disciplines according to research methods. Biogeography studies the distribution of fluids, organisms, biochemistry of tissue and cell composition, and biophysics of physical processes and methods. In turn, these sciences can be divided into separate sciences according to the objects of investigation (for example, biochemistry of plants, biochemistry of animals). Biochemical and biophysical methods are often combined or combined with other disciplines to form new disciplines (for example, radiation biochemistry, radiobiology). Biometrics, i.e., biological math, is used to analyze and generalize the results of biological research. is of great importance. A number of sciences have been formed according to the level of studying the structure of living organisms (for example, molecular biology, histology, anatomy, ecology, etc.). Parasitology, helminthology, immunology, bionics, and space biology study the issues of B. directly related to practice. Man is studied by anthropology as a product of biological evolution and as an object, and social biology as a product of social life.
History of development. If it is assumed that animals and plants were a source of food for people, the history of B. can be said to have started from the time when man began to live in the cave, or even earlier. Animal paintings and hunting scenes in caves where primitive people found their origins show that they were aware of animal structure. Similar paintings were found in the caves of the Zirovutsoi gorge of the Kohitang mountain in the Surkhandarya region. The development of modern B. science is related to the civilization of the peoples living on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea (Egypt, Greece). Greek and Roman natural philosophers were the first to try to explain the essence and origin of life from a materialistic point of view. In particular, Democritus put forward the materialist idea that things and events in the environment change without being permanent. Aristotle was the first to propose systematic study of animals. Galen is the first physiological experimenter who described the internal structure of a person, the function of blood vessels and nerves on the basis of the internal structure of animals (monkeys and pigs) (at that time it was forbidden to dissect the human body).
In the Middle Ages, the development of sciences in the countries of Western Europe almost stopped, natural sciences began to develop rapidly in the countries of the Central Asian region. Scholars such as Muhammad Khorezmi, Abu Nasr Farabi, Abu Ali ibn Sina and Abu Rayhan Beruni occupy a special place in the history of sciences of this period. Berunii recognizes that nature is made of 5 elements: space, air, fire, water and earth. In his work "India", he compares nature to a gardener who allows the strongest and healthiest branches to grow on a tree. With this, he predicts the struggle for survival between living organisms and the occurrence of natural selection. In his works, Ibn Sit wrote about plants and animals and other natural objects, phenomena and their causes. Geographical discoveries and growing interest in flora and fauna during the Renaissance lead to the establishment of botanical and zoological gardens in several countries. Many works about animals and plants appeared during this period. At the same time, the Italian botanist A. Chezalpino tried to classify plants according to the structure of flowers, seeds and fruits, in his works some concepts of metamorphosis, order and species appear for the first time. In the 16th and 17th centuries, several encyclopedic works about animals appeared. Swiss scientist K. Gesner's 5-volume History of Animals, Italian U. Aldrovandi's 13-volume monograph, French naturalist G. Rondele and Italian Ch. Salviani's works on the animals of the countries beyond the sea are among them. During this period, particularly great discoveries were made in the field of anatomy. The English scientist W. Harvey (1578-1657) creates his theory of the circulatory system. Thanks to the experiments of the Italian scientist F. Redi (1667), the doctrine of the spontaneous emergence of life was given a big blow, but it did not lead to its complete end. Many scientists believed that basal organisms without ovules could arise spontaneously. The discovery of the microscope in the 16th century was of great importance for the development of B. The discovery of the cell by the Englishman R. Hooke (1665), single-celled cells and spermatozoa by the Dutchman A. Leeuwenhoek (1673), the discovery of sexual differences in plants by the Englishman T. Millington (1676) and the German R. Kamerarmus (1694), the Italian Malpighi (1675- 79) and the discovery of plant tissues by the Englishman N. Grew (1671-82), as well as the egg cell of fishes (N. Steno, 1667) and capillary blood vessels are connected with the invention of the microscope. These discoveries led to the emergence of two currents in embryology, called ovists and animalists. The first of them - the organism is inside the egg cell in the form of a dwarf, and the second - inside the sperm cell, and the subsequent changes are only quantitative changes (see Preformism). In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, there were several attempts to create an artificial system of plants and animals. The English scientist J. Ray described more than 18,000 plants and divided them into 19 classes, and the French J. Tournefort divided them into 22 classes. Ray defined the concept of species and developed the classification of invertebrates. A perfect artificial system of animals and plants was proposed by the Swedish naturalist K. Linnaeus in his "System of Nature" (1735). Linnaeus, in his system, included man in the class of mammals and, together with monkeys, in the order of primates, but he promoted the metaphysical idea of the immutability of species and the creation of the world by divine power. Linnaeus' binary nomenclature (the designation of a species by genus and species names) was particularly important in the systematics of plants and animals. But Linnaeus' artificial system did not satisfy many natural scientists. For this reason, several scientists tried to create a natural system. In the field of botany, such a system was developed for the first time by the French botanist A. L. Jusier in 1789. Not all scientists liked the idea of systematizing animals and plants. French naturalist J. Buffon strongly opposes any system in nature, including Linnaeus' system. J. Buffon in his "History of Nature" (1749-88) shows the commonality in the structure of animals, tries to explain the similarity between close forms by their mutual kinship. The German physician and chemist G. Stahl emphasizes that human activity is controlled by his soul, and as proof of this, he shows the connection of physiological reactions with neuropsychic effects. His idea about the "tone of life" is expressed in the German physiologist A. Haller's idea of influence (1753). He and the Czech anatomist and physiologist Y. Prohoska showed that there is a nerve power that receives impressions and moves organs without the participation of the brain. Italian scientists L. Galvani and A. Volta detect electricity in the animal organism, which led to the emergence and development of the science of electrophysiology. The English scientist J. Priestley shows that plants produce oxygen, which is necessary for animals to breathe. French scientists A. Lavoisier, P. Laplace and A. Segen showed the importance of oxygen in animal respiration and oxidation reactions. Ideas about the historical development of the organic world began to take shape from the second half of the 18th century. The German scientist G. W. Leibniz announces the principles of gradation of living things and suggests that there are intermediate forms between plants and animals. The principle of "step of life" (gradation) from minerals to humans, Swiss naturalist Sh. According to Bonne (1745-64), life shows the continuity of structure and development. J. Buffon developed his hypothesis about the history of the Earth. According to him, the history of the Earth consists of 80-90 thousand years and is divided into 7 periods, only in the most recent period plants, animals and man appeared. The French scientist J.B. Lamarck in his "Philosophy of Zoology" (1809) explains the "level of life" from the point of view of evolution. According to him, the improvement of living organisms from the base to the higher forms occurred due to the internal progress characteristic of the organism (principles of gradation). Although Lamarck explained evolution correctly, he failed to reveal its main causes. The French scientist J. Cuvier puts forward his idea of catastrophes to explain the historical exchange of living organisms and the extinction of several species. French scientist E.J. Saint-Iler attempts to explain the commonality of structure in animals, arguing that similarities in structure reflect similarities in their origins. The cell theory founded by T. Schwann (1839) was of great importance in understanding the unity of the organic world and in the development of cytological and histological examinations. In the middle of the 19th century, the nature of nutrition of plants and its difference from that of animals, as well as the principles of the circulation of substances in nature, were discovered (Yu. Libix, J. B. Bussengo). In the field of animal physiology, due to the work of E. Dubois-Reymon, electrophysiology was founded, K. Berner explained the importance of organs in food digestion (1845, 1847); G. Helmgols and K. Ludwig developed methods for studying the neuromuscular system and sensory organs; I. M. Sechenov's interpretation of higher nervous activity from a materialistic point of view ("Reflexes of the brain", 1863) became of great importance. Due to the research conducted by L. Pasteur, the doctrine of the spontaneous emergence of modern organisms was dealt a blow (1860-64). S. N. Vinogradsky discovered chemosynthesis bacteria (1887-91), which synthesize organic substances from inorganic substances by chemosynthesis, and D. I. Ivanovsky discovered viruses (1892).