Biomethane production from anaerobic co-digestion at wastewater treatment plants: a critical review on development and innovations in biogas upgrading techniques
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Biomethane production from anaerobic co-digestion at wastewater treatment plants: A critical review on development and innovations in biogas upgrading techniques Luong N. Nguyen a , ⁎ , Jeevan Kumar a , Minh T. Vu a , Johir A.H. Mohammed a , Nirenkumar Pathak a , Audrey S. Commault b , Donna Sutherland b , Jakub Zdarta c , Vinay Kumar Tyagi d , Long D. Nghiem a , e a Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2220, Australia b Climate Change Cluster (C3), University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia c Institute of Chemical Technology and Engineering, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Poznan University of Technology, Berdychowo 4, PL-60965 Poznan, Poland d Environmental Biotechnology Group (EBiTG), Department of Civil Engineering, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, 247887, India e NTT Institute of Hi-Technology, Nguyen Tat Thanh University, Ho Chi Minh City, Viet Nam H I G H L I G H T S • Anaerobic co-digestion has allowed many WWTPs to become net energy producers • Biogas upgrade is essential for utilising excess gas as domestic & transport fuel • Commercial scale biogas upgrading technologies are available • Membrane separation has emerged the most preferred technology • New bioprocesses have also emerged as potential alternative for biogas upgrade G R A P H I C A L A B S T R A C T a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 19 August 2020 Received in revised form 16 September 2020 Accepted 28 September 2020 Available online 16 October 2020 Editor: Damia Barcelo Keywords: Biogas upgrading Anaerobic co-digestion Biomethane Biogas utilisation Bioenergy Anaerobic co-digestion (AcoD) can utilise spare digestion capacity at existing wastewater treatment plants (WWTP) to generate surplus biogas beyond the plant's internal energy requirement. Data from industry reports and the peer-reviewed literature show that through AcoD, numerous examples of WWTPs have become net en- ergy producers, necessitating other high-value applications for surplus biogas. A globally emerging trend is to up- grade biogas to biomethane, which can then be used as town gas or transport fuel. Water, organic solvent and chemical scrubbing, pressure swing adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic technology are commer- cially available CO 2 removal technologies for biogas upgrade. Although water scrubbing is currently the most widely applied technology due to low capital and operation cost, signi ficant market growth in membrane sepa- ration has been seen over the 2015 –2019 period. Further progress in materials engineering and sciences is ex- pected and will further enhance the membrane separation competitiveness for biogas upgrading. Several emerging biotechnologies to i) improve biogas quality from AcoD; ii) accelerate the absorption rate, and iii) cap- tures CO 2 in microalgal culture have also been examined and discussed in this review. Through a combination of AcoD and biogas upgrade, more WWTPs are expected to become net energy producers. © 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Centre for Technology in Water and Wastewater, School of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Technology Sydney, NSW 2007, Australia. E-mail address: luongngoc.nguyen@uts.edu.au (L.N. Nguyen). https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2020.142753 0048-9697/© 2020 Elsevier B.V. All rights reserved. Contents lists available at ScienceDirect Science of the Total Environment j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c a t e / s c i t o t e n v Contents 1. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2. Anaerobic co-digestion at WWTPs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.1. AcoD at WWTPs. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2 2.2. Utilisation of biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 3. Methane and other gases in biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 4. Biomethane market . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4 5. Biogas pretreatment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5.1. H 2 S removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5 5.2. Water vapor removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5.3. Ammonia removal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 5.4. Siloxanes removal . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6. Biogas upgrading technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6.1. Scrubbing technologies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6.1.1. Water or organic physical scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6 6.1.2. Chemical scrubbing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6.2. Pressure swing adsorption . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6.3. Membrane separation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7 6.4. Cryogenic technology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6.5. Current full-scale application . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8 6.6. Emerging biotechnology platforms for biogas upgrading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6.6.1. Technologies to improve biogas quality from AcoD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6.6.2. Biocatalytic enzyme enhance CO 2 capture ef ficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 6.6.3. Microalgae for CO 2 capture from biogas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9 7. Conclusion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 Declaration of competing interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11 1. Introduction Securing affordable and clean energy from sustainable sources is a global challenge of our time. Addressing this challenge has resulted in a paradigm shift in many aspects of the economy, including organic waste management. The conventional view of waste as a disposable material is no longer suitable. In a circular economy, organic waste is a resource for energy and nutrient recovery. Indeed, carbon, nitrogen, phosphorus, and energy can be sustainably and economically extracted from organic wastes such as food wastes, sewage sludge. A globally emerging practice is to valorise urban organic waste via anaerobic co- digestion (AcoD) using the spare capacity at wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) ( Nghiem et al. 2017 , Xie et al. 2018 , Miryahyaei et al. 2020 , Chan et al. 2019 , Batlle-Vilanova et al. 2019 ). Recent success in full-scale AcoD implementation demonstrates the po- tential role of WWTPs as energy producers. Anaerobic digestion facilities at WWTPs are used to treat sewage sludge with low organic content. Thus, their capacity is governed by hydraulic rather than organic loading. To uti- lise the spare digestion capacity ( Schwarzenbeck et al. 2008 ), organic waste can be co-digested with sewage sludge to increase biogas production. AcoD increases biogas production by 2.5 to 4 times compared to the digestion of only sewage sludge ( Shen et al. 2015 ). Several WWTPs have become net energy producers ( Nghiem et al. 2017 , Shen et al. 2015 , Macintosh et al. 2019 ). The Grevesmuhlen WWTP (Germany) converts a mixture of primary sludge, waste activated sludge, and grease to biogas, then through gas engines, produces 20% surplus energy ( Schwarzenbeck et al. 2008 ). The Köhlbrandhöft plant (Germany's largest WWTP, serving 1.85 million residents in Hamburg) has also pro- duced 15% more electricity than it has consumes on an annual basis. Encouraging success in AcoD implementation at WWTPs has become an impetus for new applications of the surplus biogas. Raw biogas contains about 65% CH4, 35% CO 2 , and a trace quantity of hydrogen sul fide, water vapor, ammonia, and siloxane depending on the types of feedstock and digestion process ( Mattioli et al. 2017 , Wickham et al. 2018 , Jang et al. 2015 , Martínez et al. 2012 ). The pres- ence of CO 2 and other trace gases reduces the economic value and limits bene ficial applications of biogas. Thus, biogas must be pretreated to re- move hydrogen sul fide, water vapor, and other trace gases before the most bene ficial applications. In addition to pretreatment, high-value ap- plications such as transport fuel or natural gas grid injection require complete removal of CO 2 for biomethane production. The process of CO 2 removal to produce biomethane is called biogas upgrading. Biogas upgrading technologies such as water or organic physical scrubbing, chemical scrubbings, pressure swing adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic technology are available for commercial applications but can be very energy-intensive. The selection of both pretreatment and upgrading technologies depends on the biogas composition, the avail- able resources, and the final product quality. This paper reviews the state-of-the-art knowledge on the biomethane production processes that can combine with AcoD process at WWTPs to leverage existing infrastructure. This review focuses on the biogas pro- duction capacity of AcoD and the potential utilisation of biogas and the as- sociated quality requirements. A major focus is given to the pre-treatment and upgrading technologies since they are essential for bene ficial utilisation of the produced biogas. Additional bene fits emerging from these techniques are also reviewed. This critical review expects to guide practitioners, water engineers, and scientists on future sustainable devel- opment endeavours. 2. Anaerobic co-digestion at WWTPs 2.1. AcoD at WWTPs AcoD at WWTPs refers to the digestion of sewage sludge with one or more co-substrates with high organic content. These co-substrates are essential organic waste such as food and kitchen waste, organic fraction of municipal solid waste (OFMSW), fat oil and grease (FOG), food/bev- erage processing waste, and biofuel by-products (i.e., crude glycerol, microalgae, corn silage). The theoretical principle of AcoD is the comple- mentarity between nutrient-rich sewage sludge and carbon-rich or- ganic wastes to boost the anaerobic digestion (AD) performance ( Xie et al. 2018 , Mattioli et al. 2017 , Solé-Bundó et al. 2019 , Salama et al. L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 2 2019 , Siddique and Wahid, 2018, Wang et al. 2020 , Aichinger et al. 2015 ). AcoD of sewage sludge with organic wastes signi ficantly increases the organic loading rate (OLR) with only a marginal increase in hydrau- lic loading to enhance biogas production ( Wickham et al. 2018 , Nghiem et al. 2014a ). Nghiem et al. (2014a) demonstrated in a pilot-scale AcoD that intermittent injection of crude glycerol (i.e., byproducts from oil re- finery industry) at 0.63 and 3% v/v in sewage sludge led to an increment of 50 and 80% in biogas production. Co-digestion of soft drink beverage waste at 10 and 20% of feed volume increased biogas production by 89 and 191%, respectively ( Wickham et al. 2018 ). Cavinato et al. (2013) assessed both the pilot and full-scale AcoD of sewage sludge and OFMSW and achieved an enhancement in biogas production by nearly 40 –50%. Kim et al. (2011a) reported that an 80% increase in the biogas production was attained at WWTP in Velenje, Slovenia. An uplift in spe- ci fic biogas production was observed at 230%, resulting in a 130% in- crease in electricity production and 55% in heat energy ( Zupan čič et al. 2008 ). Koch et al. (2015) reported that 78% of the energy requirement of WWTPs could be gained from AcoD of sewage sludge with food wastes at ratio of 90:10% feed volume. AcoD at WWTPs have provided 100% required energy in a number of examples ( Table 1 ). Based on the biogas production, AcoD enhances the utilisation of digester volume by 2.5 to 4 times. Shen et al. (2015) reported that AcoD plants produce the biogas at the rate of 2.5 to 4 m 3 per m 3 digester volume compared to 0.9 to 1.1 m3 in anaerobic digester (AD) plants. Likewise, Wickham et al. (2018) suggested that AD of sewage sludge can receive an additional 2 kg chemical oxygen demand (COD)/m 3 d from beverage waste to achieve an OLR of 3.8 kg COD/m 3 d with proportional increase in biogas production. Financial bene fits from AcoD can be realised through energy produc- tion and gate fee. Electricity and heat generated from biogas can be used for onsite consumption. Excess energy can also be sold. About $2 million per year in electricity revenue was achieved through AcoD of fat-oil- and-grease, food waste, and sewage sludge at the East Bay Municipal Utility District, USA ( Shen et al. 2015 ). Another example is to utilise the produced biogas in an adjacent facility to WWTPs, minimising gas transportation and investment cost. The Des Moines Metropolitan Wastewater Reclamation Authority WWTPs (Iowa, USA) sells 40 –50% of the produced biogas to a nearby oilseed processing facility, providing an income of 0.8 million USD per year ( Zhu et al. 2015 ). Gate fee (i.e. or tipping fee – a charge upon a given quantity of waste at waste processing facility) can also generate revenue to support AcoD. In the US, the food waste tipping fee varies from 50 to 170 USD/ton ( Shen et al. 2015 ). In Australia, gate fee typically consists of land fill levy (which is then reinvested to activities that divert waste away from land fill) and operation cost. The current high landfill levy and po- tential increase in near future (i.e., signi ficant landfill shortages) will create greater incentives for co-digestion of residual municipal solid waste. As an example, the estimated gate fee in New South Wales is $110 USD/ton (Source from Australian Paper's Energy from Waste feasi- bility study – Fact Sheet 6). Although numerous WWTPs have adapted AcoD in their operation ( Table 1 ), economic data are commercially sen- sitive and thus rarely available in the literature. Several technical as- pects, considerations as well as possible solutions raised from implementation of AcoD at WWTPs have been available in the literature ( Nghiem et al. 2017 , Xie et al. 2018 , Solé-Bundó et al. 2019 , Salama et al. 2019 , Siddique & Wahid 2018 ), in the favour of supporting AcoD. 2.2. Utilisation of biogas Most of the produced biogas is currently utilised for heat and elec- tricity generation ( Fig. 1 ). Biogas upgrade to biomethane has only been implemented in a few countries for transport fuel and natural gas grid injection. A notable example is Sweden, where more than half of the produced biogas is used as a transport fuel, supporting 44,000 light vehicles, 750 buses, and 2200 trucks (data in 2017 from CNG Europe). Germany is currently the world largest biogas producer. Thus, although a small portion of biogas is puri fied and used as transport fuel, it is enough to power about 96,000 light vehicles, 1700 buses, and 200 trucks (data in 2017 from CNG Europe). An emerging biomethane market has also been seen in several countries such as Denmark, France, Switzerland, and South Korea ( Fig. 1 ). Biogas utilisation options are supported initially by government in- centives such as feed-in tariffs and tax exemptions, and energy policy. For example, the feed-in tariffs for electricity resulted in biogas being used to produce electricity in Germany, UK, and Austria. Unlike Sweden, the tax exemption favours the transport fuel application. France, Denmark, Sweden, and the UK have strong financial support for biogas injection into gas grids. Wastewater treatment is an energy intensive process. The process accounts for about 3% of consumed electrical energy annually in USA ( Wan et al. 2016 ). It is estimated that the energy demand for wastewa- ter treatment is between 20 and 30 KWh per person annually. The wastewater treatment process also contributes to 5% of global green- house gas emission ( Nghiem et al. 2017 , Gude 2015 ). In this regard, AD of sewage sludge can produce biogas to compensate 15 to 18 KWh per person. Biogas conversion to heat and energy also reduce the green- house gas emission volume at WWTP. Current approach is to intensify the capacity of AD facility via AcoD at WWTP to produce more biogas. Indeed, WWTPs produce a signi ficant volume of biogas ( Table 2 ). For example, WWTPs in Germany contributes above 50% of total biogas pro- duction in 2019. It is expected that the amount of biogas production will exceed the heat and energy requirement onsite, necessitating other ap- plications for this renewable energy. Providing electricity to the power grid or injecting biomethane to the natural gas grid for distribution and transport fuel are potential ap- plications of the surplus biogas at WWTPs. Feeding electricity to the power grid is not always feasible. There have been some government in- centives especially Europe that allows WWTPs to feed surplus electricity to the power grid at a favourable tariff. However, many of these incen- tives have expired or about to expire. In some countries, WWTP utilities may not have a power generator license to inject electricity into the Table 1 Examples of AcoD implementations at WWTP to achieve 100% energy self-suf ficiency and become net energy producers ( Nghiem et al. 2017 , Shen et al. 2015 ). Location Feedstock (V/V ratio) Capacity (m 3 ) Biogas production (GWh/y) Point Loma WWTP – USA Mixed PS + WAS 8 × 13,600 193 Gloversville –Johnstown Joint WWTP – USA Sludge + (yogurt/cheese whey wastewater 1st: 5700 2nd: 4900 28 Sheboygan Regional WWTP – USA Sludge + FOG + dairy waste N/A 32 Gresham WWTP – USA Sludge (87%) + FOG (13%) 2 × 3800 17.2 East Bay Municipal Utility District WWTP - USA Sludge + FOG/Food waste/HSW 12 × 7500 90 Strass im Zillertal WWTP – Austria Mixed BNR WAS + Grease trap + Crude glycerol + Food waste N/A 10 Grevesmuhlen WWTP –Germany PS (10%) + WAS (60%) + Grease skimming sludge (30%) 2 × 1000 1.95 Zürich Werdhölzli WWTP – Switzerland Sludge (79%) + FOG (21%) = 23,000 t TS/y 4 × 7250 41.4 WAS = waste activated sludge; PS = primary sludge; FOG = fat oil and grease; BNR = biological nutrient removal; TS = total solid; HSW = high strength waste. L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 3 power grid. There are also major technical challenges to the existing energy infrastructure, which was originally designed only for energy distribution rather than a flexible feed in and sharing network. Synchro- nisation of multiple power sources to the distribution grid needs to match the voltage, frequency, and phases. In addition, the imbalance be- tween supply and demand as well as inappropriate load management can destabilise the distribution grid. Instead of electricity production, upgrading to biomethane for do- mestic consumption and transport fuel appears to be an appealing alter- native for the surplus biogas from WWTPs. The methane economy is mature and many countries have extensive natural gas grid distribution. The surplus biomethane production at WWTPs can be fed into the gas grid for distribution and storage. This also takes the advantages that storage capacity and duration of storage for methane is signi ficantly higher than other energy storage systems (e.g. electricity in battery). Fa- cilities such as natural gas refuel stations and increase in number of nat- ural gas vehicles in line with the production of biomethane. An example of a complete production line includes biogas production, biogas upgrading and a refuelling station has been operated at a Swedish WWTP. Thus, biogas upgrading to biomethane for natural gas grid injection or transport fuel is probably a preferred option for the surplus gas at WWTPs. 3. Methane and other gases in biogas Raw biogas typically contains about 65% CH 4 and 35% CO 2 ( Mattioli et al. 2017 , Wickham et al. 2018 ). The energy content of biogas is de- fined by the methane concentration – the higher the methane, the higher the calori fic energy value of the gas. For example, the calorific value (i.e., Wobbe index) of biogas with 70% of CH 4 content is 21.5 MJ/ Nm 3 , whereas that of biomethane (100% CH 4 ) is 35.8 MJ/Nm 3 . The high volume of CO 2 in biogas does not only reduce the calori fic but also make it uneconomic for compression and transportation for off- site utilisation. Trace gases especially hydrogen sul fide (H 2 S), water vapor, and si- loxane can be detrimental to downstream biogas utilisation processes. H 2 S is corrosive to co-generators, biogas storage facilities, compressors, and pipelines. The combustion of H 2 S produces sulphur dioxide, which is a major air pollutant ( Zhu et al. 2015 ). H 2 S level in biogas from AcoD is an important parameter affecting the usage of biogas. Under anaerobic conditions, sulphur-bearing or- ganic compounds and sulphate in organic wastes are reduced to sul- phide, which is released to biogas in the form of H 2 S ( Cirne et al. 2008 ). High sulphur content substrate produces high H 2 S content in biogas ( Hansen et al. 2004 ). The H 2 S content in biogas from a WWTP digesting only sewage sludge is in the range from 500 to 2500 ppmv. Animal wastes, slaughterhouse wastes, dairy milk industry wastes can produce biogas with 20,000 to 30,000 ppmv H 2 S ( Hansen et al. 2004 ). Up to 31,000 ppmv H 2 S in biogas from AcoD with seaweed has been re- ported ( Hansen et al. 2004 ). By contrast, most internal combustion en- gines manufactures limit H 2 S to 100 ppmv in biogas. According to the European biomethane standards, the concentration of H 2 S is required to be less than 1 ppmv for gas grid injection and transport fuel (European biomethane standards). Water vapor in biogas can also lead to corrosion problems ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). Water content in biogas depends on the digester's operating temperature (e.g., mesophilic or thermophilic). The water content is about 4 to 5% (v/v) of raw biogas from the mesophilic digester. At higher temperatures (i.e., 55 to 60 °C in thermo- philic digester), 7 –8% (v/v) (between 30 and 100 g water per m 3 ) of the water content has been recorded. Water vapor removal is necessary to avoid corrosion in biogas upgrading and utilisation. The permissible water content is below 10 mg/Nm 3 for gas grid injection. The presence of siloxanes in biogas can lead to the formation of si- loxane dioxide particles. Siloxane dioxide particles are abrasive and are adhesive to metal surface, causing excessive wear and tear of the co-generator engines. Siloxanes concentration in biogas is between 1 and 400 mg(Si)/Nm 3 , while the maximum permissible siloxane concen- tration in natural gas is 5 mg (Si)/Nm 3 ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). Biomethane for gas grid injection and transport fuel must meet very stringent standards and are due to the relevance of the technical execu- tion of installations, planning, construction, and operation. The European Commission has begun to develop the European biomethane standards for grid injection and transport fuel. The new standard is set to bring legal and technical security, market assessment, and precondi- tion free trade amongst countries. Requirements such as total H 2 S < 1 ppmv, and siloxanes <0.5 mg (Si)/Nm 3 are examples in the new standards. 4. Biomethane market Biomethane market has gained signi ficant momentum in recent years. The number of new biogas upgrading plants increases worldwide ( Table 3 ). It results from combined factors including i) advanced in bio- gas upgrading technology; ii) paradigm shift from a low economic elec- tricity and heat production to new opportunities for use biomethane in the transport sector, and iii) moving towards a green economy model ( Zhu et al. 2019 ). As an upgraded product of biogas, biomethane is es- sentially identical to natural gas. Thus, biomethane can be injected Table 2 Number of WWTPs with AD and AcoD of sewage sludge with organic waste for biogas pro- duction and the relative biogas production (Source: IEA Bioenergy Task 37: https://task37. ieabioenergy.com/country-reports.html ). Country WWTPs with AD WWTPs with AcoD Biogas production at WWTPs (GWh/y) Biogas from WWTPs (% of total production) Year of data collection Australia 52 2 381 24 2017 Brazil 10 3 210 4 2016 Denmark 51 n.a 308 8.3 2018 Finland 16 n.a 162 23 2017 France 88 n.a 442 26 2017 Germany 1274 n.a 3657 56.2 2019 Norway 27 n.a 240 33 2015 South Korea 78 21 630 22 2017 Sweden 138 n.a 715 35 2018 Switzerland 473 n.a 633 43.5 2018 The Netherlands 80 n.a 640 37.2 2018 United Kingdom 163 n.a 1280 15.4 2018 Canada 31 n.a n.a 20.7 2019 USA 1241 216 n.a n.a 2015 0 20 40 60 80 100 France # Ko rea # Sw ed en * Brazil & Fin land # Switzerland * D enm ar k * Austria @ Australia # Total biogas energy (GWh/y) ) y/ h W G de ra hs f o %( n oit as ili t u sa g oi B Electricity Heat Vehicle fuel Flaring Germ any * 0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 3000 3500 4000 4500 5000 5500 10000 20000 30000 40000 50000 60000 Total biogas energy Fig. 1. Biogas utilisation (i.e. % of shared GWh/y) in some countries. The symbol *, #, &, @ indicated data source from 2018, 2017, 2016, and 2013, respectively (Source: IEA Bioenergy Task 37). L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 4 into the natural gas grid or used as transport fuel. Germany and Sweden have the largest markets for biomethane in the world. A growing inter- est can also be seen in other countries, especially the UK, France, and Switzerland ( Table 3 ). The global biomethane market was valued at USD 0.62 billion in 2017. With the annual growth rate of 26%, a $4.96 billion market size is estimated by 2026. Several countries have set ambitious target for biomethane as natural gas replacement for household consumption ( Hoo et al. 2020 ). France plans to provide 8 TWh of biomethane energy by 2023 ( Herbes et al. 2018 ). In the UK, biomethane is expected to be a major source of the future clean gas supply (Richards et al. 2020). Biomethane can also be lique fied or compressed biomethane for storage or used as transport fuels. Lique fied biomethane also has higher energy content, suitable for heavy vehicles and providing long distance transportation. Biomethane utilisation as transport fuel has continued to increase over the years. Sweden has set a target of 100% of transport fuel from biomethane by 2030. This target appears realistic. In 2016, 82.8% of transport fuel was from biomethane. This number increased to 90.8% in 2018. 5. Biogas pretreatment 5.1. H 2 S removal Desulphurisation of raw biogas is considered the essential step be- fore further processing and the use of biomethane. Methods to remove H 2 S from biogas can be categorised into three groups: i) biological desulphurisation; ii) absorption to a liquid solution (water or chemical scrubbing), and iii) adsorption on a solid absorbent (iron sponge, iron oxide pellets, activated carbon) ( Table 4 ). Biological desulphurisation can be performed in-situ to the anaero- bic digester. Air or oxygen is injected into the digester to provide oxygen molecules ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 , Nghiem et al. 2014b ). Nghiem et al. (2014b) injected oxygen to regulate the oxidation redox potential be- tween −320 to −270 mV to reduced H 2 S in biogas from 6000 to below 30 ppm without any observable effect on digester performance. Biological desulphurisation can be carried out ex-situ in bio filters, which are packed bed scrubbers containing immobilized microorgan- isms. H 2 S is captured in the liquid film and biologically translated to sul- phur and sulphate. The liquid of the scrubber bed can be regenerated if the pH level decreases below 7. This system is unable to supply a stable H 2 S content <100 ppmv, and this value varies with the qualities of the raw biogas. Hence, this process cannot be con fidently employed for biomethane production (Petersson et al. 2009). H 2 S in biogas can be removed by absorption in the scrubbing tech- nologies (i.e., physical and chemical scrubbing) ( Table 4 ). Water and al- kaline solution (e.g., sodium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide, and potassium hydroxide) and amines can absorb H 2 S. In this regard, H 2 S can be simultaneously removed during biogas upgrading (i.e. CO 2 re- moval). However, it is worth mentioning that chemical reaction be- tween H 2 S with absorbent is an irreversible process, limiting the absorbent regeneration. (See Table 5 .) Adsorption of H 2 S in iron oxide pellets/sponge, and activated carbon column is an effective method for biogas treatment. Iron oxide reacts with H 2 S in biogas to form ferric sul fide ( Wang et al. 2011 ). Wang et al. (2011) reported that iron oxide could uptake large amount of Table 3 Increase in the number of biogas upgrading plants in selected countries over the 2014 –2019 period (Source: IEA Bioenergy Task 37: https://task37.ieabioenergy.com/ country-reports.html ). Country Number of plants in 2014 Number of plants in 2016 Number of plants in 2019 France 8 30 47 Denmark 12 32 34 United Kingdom 37 85 96 Italy 5 7 8 Finland 9 12 17 Switzerland 24 31 45 Netherlands 21 26 53 Germany 178 194 203 Austria 14 15 13 Sweden 59 63 69 Hungary 2 2 n/a Luxembourg 3 3 3 Spain 1 1 Norway n/a n/a 9 Australia 0 0 0 South Korea n/a n/a 10 Japan n/a 6 6 China n/a n/a 2 USA n/a n/a 50 n/a = not available Table 4 Considerations for selection of desulphurisation techniques. Method Considerations References Air/oxygen injection - Potential over oxygenation affect anaerobic conditions - High cost of pure oxygen bottles - Limited full scale experience - High volume of N 2 in biogas ( Nghiem et al. 2014b , Jení ček et al. 2017 ) Bio-trickling filter - Unstable performance - Slow reaction rate - Dif ficult to set up the filter ( Montebello et al. 2013 ) Water absorption (scrubbing) - High water volume - Unstable performance - Can remove part of CO 2 ( Angelidaki et al. 2018 ) Chemical absorption (scrubbing) - Ongoing chemical cost (no regeneration) - Performance is predictable - Partial CO 2 removal ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ) - Addition of catalyst solution (Fe (III)-EDTA) to reduce chemical consumption ( Horikawa et al. 2004 ) Iron sponge (Iron oxide/hydroxide) adsorption - High operating costs - Excessive heat generation - H 2 SO 4 formation ( Angelidaki et al. 2018 ) Activated carbon adsorption - H 2 SO 4 formation - Impregnated with NaOH, KOH, Na 2 CO 3 - Regeneration requirements more frequent - Modi fication of AC with CuSO 4 , KOH, ZnAc 2 ( Zulke fli et al. 2019 , Ciahotný et al. 2019) Table 5 Advantages and disadvantages of physical scrubbing technologies ( Singhal et al. 2017 , Kadam and Panwar, 2017 , Niesner et al. 2013 ). Method Advantages Disadvantages Water scrubbing - Many years of experience - Numerous plants are under operation - Less costly (i.e. water is a low-cost solvent). - Environmentally friendly solvent - Technically simple method - No additional heat - Energy consumption: 0.2 to 0.5 kWh/Nm 3 of biogas. - High pressure 4 –10 bars - Methane is up to 5% by volume - Water is less selective (i.e. absorbent rate and loading is low) Solvent scrubbing - High absorption rate and loading per volume of solvent - Smaller footprint - Energy consumption: 0.1 to 0.33 kWh/Nm 3 of biogas. - Additional heat to achieve effective regeneration - Potential environment pollution of used solvent - Methane loss is up to 4% by volume L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 5 H 2 S (e.g., 0.25 kg H 2 S per kg iron oxide). The formed ferric sul fide can be changed to ferric oxide and elemental sulfur by exposing it to air or ox- ygen during the regeneration process. Adsorption is the most applied method for H 2 S removal because of its outstanding performance, regen- eration capacity, and easy to use. 5.2. Water vapor removal There are several methods to remove water vapor. Biogas can be cooled down to allow water vapor to condense ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). The condensed water is returned to the digester or drained out. Moisture in biogas can also be removed by adsorption dryers. These are high water adsorbent materials (e.g. silica gel, aluminum oxides, and molecular sieves). The used adsorbent can be regenerated by heating. Moisture can also be removed by increasing the biogas pres- sure. In this process, water vapor is not completely removed but the rel- ative humidity of biogas is reduced. It is also noted that water vapor removal is performed after CO 2 removal in scrubbing technologies. 5.3. Ammonia removal Ammonia can be present in biogas at a trace level of up to 100 ppm ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). Ammonia can be removed simultaneously with water because of its high solubility in water. Scrubbing technolo- gies (i.e. physical and chemical scrubbings) are effective in achieving complete removal of ammonia from raw biogas ( Allegue et al. 2012 ). Therefore, the pretreatment to removal of water vapor and ammonia is not required if these methods are applied during CO 2 removal (i.e. biogas upgrading). 5.4. Siloxanes removal Absorption and adsorption are the two common methods for the re- moval of siloxanes from biogas. Organic solvents, strong acids or bases solution can provide up to 97% siloxanes removal ef ficiency ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). However, the use of organic solvents, acids or bases could cause corrosion and produce hazardous chemicals that requires additional treatment. Adsorption on solid materials such as sil- ica gel and activated carbon is preferred option. Activated carbon ad- sorption reduces siloxanes level to 0.1 mg/Nm 3 ( Ajhar et al. 2010 ). Adsorbent regeneration is possible at high temperature (i.e., above 250 °C). Siloxanes removal is usually performed after water vapor since high moisture gas can decrease the removal ef ficiency ( Schweigko fler and Niessner, 2001 ). 6. Biogas upgrading technologies Once pre-treated, biogas can be further processed to remove CO 2 to produce biomethane. Several biogas upgrading methods are already available at commercial scale. They include scrubbing (i.e. water, or- ganic solvent, and chemical scrubbing), pressure swing adsorption, membrane separation, and cryogenic technology. The maturity of these methods varies widely. It is noteworthy that some biogas upgrade methods can result in the removal of impurities, especially H 2 S. For ex- ample, water scrubbing (at high pH) and pressure swing adsorption can remove both H 2 S and CO 2 together. On the other hand, a pretreatment step to remove H 2 S is required for CO 2 removal by chemical scrubbing using amines. H 2 S removal is also required to avoid membrane poison- ing in membrane separation techniques. The high CH 4 purity is required for natural gas gird injection and ve- hicle fuel, meeting a few criteria such as high-energy content, gas trans- portation, storage, and technical restrictions. For example, biomethane is compressed in pressurised gas cylinders at 200 to 250 bar for storing and transporting purposes. While CH 4 can be readily compressed, a mixture of CO 2 and CH 4 has very different thermodynamic properties and cannot be readily compressed at high pressure for storage. 6.1. Scrubbing technologies 6.1.1. Water or organic physical scrubbing Water or solvent scrubbing relies on the difference in the solubility of gasses (CO 2 and CH 4 ) in a wash solution ( Andriani et al. 2014 ). The wash solution can be water (water scrubbing) or organic solvent (e.g. polyethylene glycol dimethyl ether, trade name as Genosorb or Seloxol). This method involves no chemical reaction. Since the gas solubility im- proves with increasing pressure, pre-treated biogas is pressurised and injected into the scrubbing column ( Fig. 2 ). In the water scrubbing process, the pretreated biogas is maintained 6 –10 bar and 40 °C. At this condition, the solubility of CO 2 is approxi- mately 26 times higher than that of CH 4 . The gas is injected via the bot- tom side of the column, while water is provided from the top. The counter-current injection increases the gas and water interaction in the scrubbing column. This con figuration also allows CH 4 venting out from the top while CO 2 rich water is circulated into a flash column from the bottom. At the flash column, the gas pressure decreases to 2.5 –3.5 bars, releasing CH 4 gas to be recovered. The CO 2 rich water is pumped into a stripping column. In this column, the air is injected at at- mospheric pressure, resulting in the removal of CO 2 from water (i.e., regeneration). The ventilated CH 4 is subjected to a drying step to produce final biomethane ( Angelidaki et al. 2018 ). Although water scrubbing is a simple process with low energy con- sumption, high water consumption, and methane loss are major draw- backs. A total of 3 –5% of methane can be lost, and the combustion of the exhaust gas is required to maintain emission regulation ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 ). The water scrubbing method requires a large amount of water (200 m 3 /h for a gas flow of 1000 Nm 3 /h) ( Sun et al. 2015 ). Thus, water regeneration is crucial for the economic viability of this technology. Water scrubbing can be advantageous when apply at WWTPs. Secondary and tertiary ef fluent can be used as water source without regeneration ( Angelidaki et al. 2018 ). An organic solvent can also be used as the wash solution. The process con figuration is similar to water scrubbing ( Fig. 2 ). CO 2 has a higher sol- ubility in some solvent such as polyethylene glycol dimethyl ether than in water. Consequently, a smaller volume of solvent is required and the size of the scrubbing column can be reduced. The absorption process also occurs at lower pressure (4 to 8 bars) resulting in a lower energy demand compared to water scrubbing (6 to 10 bars). However, organic solvent regeneration is a complex process compared to water regener- ation. Air stripping and pressure release are not effective to regenerate CO 2 -rich exhaust gas CO 2 rich water/solvent Pre-treated biogas Air stripping or heating Flash gas Scrubbing colum n Flash column Biomethane Stripping colum n Drying step Fig. 2. Schematic of scrubbing technologies for the separation of CO 2 and CH 4 . L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 6 the organic solvents. In practice, organic solvent is heated to between 40 and 80 °C, requiring additional energy of 0.1 to 0.15 kWh/Nm 3 of biogas for regeneration ( Ryckebosch et al. 2011 , Gupta 2003, Singhal et al. 2017 ). 6.1.2. Chemical scrubbing Chemical scrubbing or chemical absorption is based on a reversible reaction between CO 2 with a chemical adsorbent. Common chemical absorbents are monoethanolamine (MEA), diethanolamine (DEA), methyldiethanolamine (MDEA), and other amine compounds. Their so- lutions have high selectivity against CO 2 . Since chemical adsorbents are only reactive with CO 2 , the CH 4 loss is minimal after its dissolution in solvent solution (0.1 to 0.2%) ( Sun et al. 2015 ). Thus, a post- combustion of lean gas is not required. Chemical scrubbing can produce high CH 4 purity (99% by volume). H 2 S removal upstream must be con- ducted because of the corrosive reaction of H 2 S with amine solution, i.e., degradation of amine ( Vega et al. 2014 ). Regeneration of an amine solution is an energy-intensive process compared to the physical scrubbing due to the strong binding between the gas molecules. The CO 2 saturated amine solution is heated to above 110 °C for regeneration. The regenerated amine solution then cooled down to 40 °C before starting a new absorption cycle. Regeneration con- sumes 0.4 to 0.8 kWh/Nm 3 of biogas, or about 15 to 30% of the energy generated from the biomethane ( Leung et al. 2014 ). Recent research has focused on minimising thermal energy requirement for regenerating amine solution. It is achieved by developing a new amine solution, optimising heat-exchanging equipment, and modifying opera- tion conditions (temperature and gas flow rate) ( Aroonwilas and Veawab, 2009 , Kim et al. 2011b ). Amine degradation, equipment corro- sion, and potential generation of the volatile compound into the atmo- sphere are other limitations of the chemical scrubbing method. Moreover, amine can degrade into nitrosamines and nitramines, poten- tially harmful to human health and the environment ( Stowe and Hwang, 2017 ). 6.2. Pressure swing adsorption Pressure swing adsorption relies on the principle that CH 4 and CO 2 adsorb differently to speci fic surfaces or pores of adsorbents. Since the adsorption of CO 2 is proportionally to high pressures and low tempera- tures, the pressure swing adsorption process utilise pressure/tempera- ture differences, i.e., pressure-temperature swing, to carry out the separation ( Ntiamoah et al. 2016 ). The system main part is a column, filling with adsorbents such as activated carbon, zeolites, calcium ox- ides, hydrotalcites, and carbon molecular sieves ( Fig. 3 ). These materials are porous and of high surface areas to enhance adsorption capacity ( Leung et al. 2014 ). Desulphurisation is required before adsorption since H 2 S is irreversibly adsorbed by the adsorption substance and pro- duces toxic effects ( Patterson et al. 2011 ). In the pressure swing adsorption, pre-treated biogas is compressed to 2 –7 bar and cooled to about 70 °C to improve the adsorption. The pressured gas is injected into the adsorption column from the bottom. CO 2 molecules, which are smaller than methane molecules, accumulate to a much greater degree on the surfaces or in the pores than CH 4 . At the same time, CH 4 remains primarily in the gas phase and escapes from the column head, resulting in a methane-rich product gas. Once the meth- ane is released, the pressure inside the column decreases to atmo- spheric pressure. The adsorbed CO 2 dissolves from the surfaces and returns into the gas phase. This gas is blown off (CO 2 - rich exhaust gas) via a valve at the column bottom ( Fig. 3 ). The column is then filled with biogas to begin a new cycle. Pressure swing adsorption has been in operation for many years at many reference plants for biogas upgrading. The biomethane quality is nearing 96 –98%, with 1.5 to 2.5% methane loss ( Allegue et al. 2012 ). Therefore, post-combustion of exhaust gas is required to minimise methane release in the atmosphere ( Sun et al. 2015 ). Overall, the energy requirement of the pressure swing adsorption is between 0.15 and 0.35 kWh/Nm 3 of biogas, making it a competitive method for biogas upgrading. In the temperature swing adsorption, pre-treated biogas is injected into the column at ambient temperature and pressure allowing CO 2 molecules to adsorb on the materials. Regeneration, on the other hand, is conducted by directly heating the column or injecting hot air, N 2 gas, or steam into the column ( Ntiamoah et al. 2016 ). The regenera- tion rate is dependent on temperature. Indeed, higher temperature re- sults in a faster regeneration rate. In comparison to pressure swing adsorption, the regeneration time usually is longer. After regeneration, the column is cooled down to ambient temperature. N 2 gas is applied to both cool and clean the column for the next adsorption cycle. Tem- perature swing adsorption is mainly applied to capture CO 2 from the power station and utilise the wasted heat in the regeneration process. 6.3. Membrane separation The principle of membrane separation methods is that gases perme- ate through the membrane pores at different selectivity, i.e., highly per- meable to CO 2 (small molecule) and impermeable to CH 4 (large molecule). In general, membrane suitable for biogas upgrading is 20 more permeable to CO 2 than to CH 4 . The CO 2 -rich exhaust gas from the membrane separation can be used to produce highly pure CO 2 suit- able for the food and beverage industry ( Esposito et al. 2019 ). Esposito et al. (2019) evaluated the first large scale industrial biogas upgrading plant to produce CH 4 and CO 2 from membrane separation simulta- neously, liquefying and cryogenic units. The residual CO2 from five membranes line was combined and subjected to a liquefying, compres- sion, drying, and cooling. High purity CO 2 (99.9%) was achieved after cooling to −30 °C to separate N 2 , O 2, and trace CH 4 . Membrane separation is available in different designs. Typical oper- ating pressures are 7 to 20 bars ( Peppers et al. 2019 ). To achieve high methane purities, the tube bundles are connected in two-stage or three-stage cascades. The two-stage cascade provides higher CH 4 and maintains higher recovery than a single cascade. In the two-stage cas- cade, a circulation loop returns the gas from the first membrane back to the inlet, while the enriched CH 4 continue to the second membrane ( Fig. 4 ). Key advantages of membrane separation include modular and com- pact design with less moving parts. However, membrane separation is still an emerging technology with limited practical experience. More- over, the energy requirement is between 0.18 and 0.33 kWh/Nm 3 of Biomethane Adsorbents (activated carbon, zeolite, and carbon molecular sieve) Pre-treated biogas Exhaust gas CH 4 CO 2 Fig. 3. Basic principle of pressure swing adsorption. L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 7 biogas ( Makaruk et al. 2010 ). Methane loss of up to 2% has been re- ported in some laboratory-scale studies ( Baena-Moreno et al. 2020 ). Peppers et al. (2019) recently investigated the feasibility of membrane separation for 100 Nm 3 /h biogas plant. The results demonstrated that pre-treatment of other gas is necessary to protect the membrane and ensure high CH 4 purity ( Baena-Moreno et al. 2020 ). Although biogas quality satis fied the standard, the overall cost analysis revealed low eco- nomic viability at small scale (< 100 Nm 3 /h biogas flowrate) ( Peppers et al. 2019 ). 6.4. Cryogenic technology Cryogenic treatment is based on the principle that gases condense (become liquid) or re-sublimate (become solid) at low temperatures or high pressures. CO 2 and CH 4 have different condensation tempera- tures. The CO 2 re-sublimates at −78.5 °C and 1 bar while CH 4 remains gaseous. The solid CO 2 and gaseous CH 4 can be separated through recti- fication (i.e., counter-current distillation). Because of this principle, cryogenic treatment can achieve very pure CH 4 (up to 99.9% by vol- ume), CO 2 (up to 99.9% by volume) with less than 1% methane loss. However, the technology is still under development, and its market readiness has not yet been fully established. A ubiquitous and signi ficant obstacle to this technology is the high energy required for refrigeration and compression of the raw biogas. The energy consumption is approximately 10% of the generated meth- ane. Another challenge is to ensure that frozen CO 2 does not clog the equipment in the gas refrigeration process. In this regard, other biogas impurities must be carefully removed. However, possible options to strengthen this technology are available. The energy used to condense initial biogas can be recovered if the produced biomethane is to be liq- ue fied. Biomethane liquefaction at −125 °C and 15 bar leverage syner- gies in the production of cold gas, thus minimising the energy consumption in both steps. Likewise, frozen CO 2 can be utilised as dry ice in some industrial applications ( Fig. 5 ) ( Esposito et al. 2019 ). Thus, cryogenic treatment is starting to become commercially competitive. 6.5. Current full-scale application The number of full-scale plants utilising biogas upgrading technolo- gies is increasing ( Fig. 6 ). Physical scrubbing using water (i.e. water scrubbing) is the dominant technology. In 2019, there have been 181 plants in operation. Water scrubbing is a simple process in comparison to others technologies. Its major drawback is high water volume re- quirement. Reusing secondary or tertiary ef fluent for scrubbing can re- duce overall cost. The market share of membrane separation technology has grown signi ficantly over the last five years. The number of plants increased from 92 (2015) to 173 (2019) ( Fig. 6 ). Key advan- tages of membrane separation include robust design with less moving Biomethane Purity > 93% Recovery > 58% CO 2 Pre-treated biogas Pre-treated biogas CO 2 Biomethane Purity >97% Recovery > 98%) Recycle stream One stage process Two stages process Fig. 4. Physical and technical principle of membrane separation. Capture and use pure CO 2 in industry and greenhouses CO 2 capture CO 2 (99.9%) Liquid CH 4 (99.9%) CH 4 Pre-treated biogas CO 2 CH 4 Liquefaction - 78.5 to -90 °C 1 bar - 120 to -160 °C 15 bar Pure CH 4 gas Fig. 5. Principle of cryogenic biogas upgrading with potential to capture pure CO 2 and liquefy CH 4 . L.N. Nguyen, J. Kumar, M.T. Vu et al. Science of the Total Environment 765 (2021) 142753 8
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