Book · January 994 citations 110 reads 2,264 authors
Download 5.72 Mb. Pdf ko'rish
|
1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Didactics of Mathematics as a Scientific Discipline, 133-146.
© 1994 Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in the Netherlands. cial interaction. Only the very recent developments of cognitive science have begun to open into the social dimension (see the remarkable change of book titles from Knowing, Learning, and Instruction to Perspectives on Socially Shared Cognition; Resnick, 1989; Resnick, Levine, & Teasley 1991). In parallel, categories like "instruction" or "training" have nearly dis- appeared, not least because of the negative connotations that have devel- oped with the growing insight and acceptance of the social dimension. "Information" and "intelligence" seem to follow (see Varela, 1990). But, for a long time, the basal characteristic, common with many other approaches, was the focus on the individual. We may call this the individ- ualistic stream of educational theories. The historical background clearly is the fascination with the individual, identifiable throughout the 19th century and well into the 20th century. Nietzsche's statement that the highest goal of humanity does not lie in its end, but in its highest exemplars marks a peak of this individualistic tradition. 2. THE SOCIAL CONCERN AND THE COLLECTIVE Verbal expression is never just a reflection of something existent beyond it which is given and "finished off." It always creates something absolutely new and unique, something which is always related to life values such as truth, goodness, beauty, etc. (Mikhail Bakhtin, citation written in 1920, first publication of the Russian original 1979 in Moscow; cited by Kozulin, 1990, p. 54). During the same period, Soviet psychology developed quite differently. The 1917 revolution turned Marx' and Engels' texts to the rank of bibles. From the very beginning, this forced Soviet psychologists to take their theory of society into account. Typical is Vygotsky's program, dated from 1925, for developing a "general psychology" based on dialectical materialism: It is the theory of psychological materialism or the dialectic of psychology which I describe as general psychology. . . . One has to explore the essence of the given area of phenomena, the laws of their alteration, their qualitative and quantitative characteristics, their causality, one has to create related categories and concepts, in one word – a "capital" of its own. (Vygotsky 1985, pp. 251-252, referring to Marx' "capital") Characteristic for the psychological movement in the Soviet Union at that time is also the separation from behaviorism as well as from Gestalt or holistic psychologies. In 1929, about 600 books on psychological themes appeared in the Soviet Union (Jaroschewski, 1975, p. 406), giving proof of the vivid discussion. Basov, a scholar of Bechterev, was the first to stress the importance of "activity" (instead of "behavior") for human mental de- velopment (Métraux, in Vygotsky, 1992, p. 9). And, nearly contemporary, Vygotsky was the first to analyze activity and consciousness from the per- spective of dialectic materialism's doctrine of societal practice. In a transient phase of his thinking about 1930, Vygotsky discriminated higher from lower mental functions through their genesis. The lower mental 134 PERSPECTIVES ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION functions follow stimulus-response constellations; they develop through maturation. In contrast, higher mental functions are mediated through the use of tools and signs, and are open to conscious and deliberate training. The higher functions develop only within societal relations, "through the in- ternalisation of selfregulatory pattern pre-given in society" (Métraux, in Vygotsky, 1992, p. 19). It was in 1932 that Vygotsky changed his mind dramatically, as he noted in his diary (published in 1977 in Russian), in which he marked "the analysis of the meaning of signs as to be the only adequate access for an investigation of conscious human activities" (Métraux, in Vygotsky, 1992, p. 15). Reading Engels' Dialectic of Nature, he "abruptly was led to the issue of the relation not only between man and nature, but also between man and others, and man and himself, as mediated through tools." (p. 16). He, apparently, had arrived at what he was searching for so intensively: the instrument for bridging between the lower and the higher mental functions as well as for describing the interrelation between the psychological and the social. During the last two years of his life, he dealt with the key concept of "mediating activity" (adopted from Hegel's concept "vermittelnde Tätigkeit"), which he split into "use of tools" and "use of signs" (Vygotsky, 1992, pp. 152-153). Thus his last two years can be interpreted as the offspring of activity theory. But it was as late as 1979, about half a century later, that: addressing a symposium on Vygotsky's theoretical legacy, Moscow philosopher and psychologist G. P. Schedrovitsky resolutely challenged the myth of succes- sion and suggested that the activity theory substantially derivated from Vygotsky's original program. Schedrovitsky emphasised that the principle of semiotic mediation is the cornerstone of cultural-historical theory, representing its primary focus. (Kozulin 1990, p. 254). It is remarkable that in his attempt to describe the development of sign use, Vygotsky turns to quote from special experimental work with children, whilst his more scholastic followers had (and still have) endless debates about the meaning of certain concepts and where their boundaries should be drawn. Some even deny whether Vygotsky can be named an activity theorist at all. Typical is Brushlinsky, who speaks of "the activity approach (of S. L. Rubinstein and A. N. Leont'ev, as we mentioned earlier) and non-activity approach (of, among others, L. S. Vygotsky)" (Lektorsky, 1990, p. 72). Late in 1932, Vygotsky quotes Engels: "The tool means the specific hu- man activity, the forming impact of man onto nature, the production," knowing that the impact is reciprocal: Man changes with the use of tools as well (Vygotsky, 1992, p. 102). Vygotsky understood "tool" primarily as the laborer's tool for his working activities: The tool is the mediator of the external activity of man, directed at the subjection of nature. But the sign does not alter the object of psychic operation. Rather it is a HEINRICH BAUERSFELD 135 PERSPECTIVES ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION medium for the psychic influencing of behaviour – of the own or that of others. (Vygotsky, 1992, p. 154) Thus ruling the nature and ruling the behavior of others is the function of "mediating activities." The fascination of his last two years of life was with function and use of signs, which, in his understanding, include language "use:" According to the cultural-historical theory evolved by L. S. Vygotsky in the last years of his life, it is speech or to be more exact, speech and other cultural signs social in origin and thus distinguishing men from animals that serve as the "producing cause" (his own expression) of the child's psychic development. (Brushlinsky, cited in Lektorsky, 1990, p. 72) Comparing Vygotsky's late texts with the related production of his followers – particularly Rubinstein, Leont'ev, and Davydov on "activity theory" – produces the impression that he seemed to be much more sensitive, more empirically oriented, and less scholastic. (There is an interesting parallel, at least for German readers, with the famous educator Herbart [1776-1841], whose writings were almost forgotten under the sweeping success of his scholars Ziller, Dörpfeld, and Rhein. They turned his very reflected ideas into handy recipes, teachable concepts, and a scholastic system of "formal steps," but missed his reflectedness and sensitivity through simplification and formalized representations.) The followers generalized Vygotsky's key concept and spoke of "mediator objects" (sometimes directly in German "gegenständliche Mittel"), which, as objects, include even language (see Lektorsky 1984, 1990), and they identify mediator objects as "carriers of meaning:" "Mediator objects used in the process of cognition do not have a value as such but merely as carriers of knowledge about other objects" (Lektorsky, 1984, pp. 142-143). Recently they also introduced the notion of "collective subject" (Davydov, 1991; Lektorsky, 1984, pp. 232-233), which incorporates the in- dividual: "The individual subject, his consciousness and cognition must be understood in terms of their incorporation in different systems of collective practical and cognitive activity" (Lektorsky, 1984, p. 240). Such shifts of meaning absolutize the social – or better: the collective – dimension. And it is no remedy to modify this by stating "the collective subject itself does not exist outside concrete persons" (Lektorsky, 1984, p. 240). The crucial points are the stated dominance of the social and the re- lated objectifying of language – making an object of something, what Engels called "Mythos der Verdinglichung," the myth of objectification. Lektorsky accuses Vygotsky of being "one-sided," because of his "exagger- ated" identification of egocentric speech with thinking:". . . if speech fulfills the function of planning and even that of solving problems, what is thought supposed to do?" (Lektorsky, 1984, p. 240; Lektorsky uses scientifically quite dubious arguments for this, like: "It is common knowledge that speaking does not yet mean thinking, although it is impossible to think 136 without speaking at all." Lektorsky, 1984, p. 240). But just this presumed separating of languaging and thinking carries the temptation for an objecti- vation of language (see Bauersfeld, 1992a). Likewise Brushlinsky states "speech . . . cannot be activity" (cited in Lektorsky, 1990, p. 72), because "word-sign" does not have the same importance as activity (in his sense). But what – if not language as an objective body of meaning is meant – will be left with a word-sign, once it becomes separated from its use? Vygotsky, obviously, was much more careful with related descriptions. Taking the followers' activity theory as a prototype, I will call related theoretical views the collectivist stream of educational theories. There are interesting attempts toward the development of "social theories" for learning and teaching (see, e.g., Markowitz, 1986; Miller, 1986). 3. A MEDIATING POSITION – INTERACTIONISM With primitive means the child tries to react upon a complicated structure. (Vygotsky, 1992, p. 252) Following both Paul Feyerabend's advice: "All you can do, if you really want to be truthful, is to tell a story" (1991, p. 141) and Gregory Bateson's conviction that stories can be very "informative" in research and in educa- tion, allow me to give a brief personal account of how I arrived at somewhat different positions. In the early 1960s, our empirical work with students in Grades 1 through 6, especially related to the changes from elementary into secondary education (Grades 5 and 6 are the transition levels in Germany), appeared to produce quite weak outcomes, because little was known at that time about the relations between teacher and student(s). There was no suf- ficient answer to questions like: How does a teacher identify a student's mistake? How do both teacher and student arrive at somewhat viable agreements and meanings for continuing? How does a student understand the teacher's inventions? The availability of video recorders then elicited fundamental changes in our approaches. When videotaped classroom scenes could be played back on and on, applying different foci of attention from passage to passage, a tremendous need for the theoretical orientation of such interpretative proce- dures became evident. Psychological theories, as helpful as they are, did not cover the complicated reflexive relations among teachers and students. But well developed means for describing the interaction among human beings were available in special wings of sociology and linguistics: Ethnomethodo- logy, Social Interactionism, and Discourse Analysis, the branch of linguistics investigating language pragmatics (initially, we found most help in Berger & Luckmann, 1966; Blumer, 1969; Mehan & Wood, 1975; later, also Cazden & Hymes, 1972; Goffman, 1974; and many more). Since sociologists are interested in social structures only, but not in learning and teaching subject matter issues, we had to transfer concepts and HEINRICH BAUERSFELD 137 PERSPECTIVES ON CLASSROOM INTERACTION relations into our field of concern. Early products were the identification of "patterns of interaction" (Bauersfeld, 1978; Voigt, 1984), of "domains of subjective experiences" (Bauersfeld 1983), and, more generally, of a spe- cific "hidden grammar" for the activities in mathematical classrooms, which – from an observer's view – students and teacher often seem to follow, though not consciously (Krummheuer, 1992). We abandoned simple cause/effect ascriptions and favored an "abductive" hypothesis formation (Pierce, 1965). In order to understand sufficiently the individual gains and the social regularities emerging from certain classroom cultures, it was necessary to switch between both views, the psychological and the sociological, without giving preference to either one. Across the years, the reactions of the wider community, particularly from both the extreme positions, were very much like the Kettering motto de- scribes it (see above). On the other hand, the insight into the reciprocity of (a) individual change and development through participation in social inter- action, including the insuperable subjectivity of personal constructions; and (b) the permanent accomplishment and change of social regularities through the individual members of the classroom culture made it very easy to adopt the radical constructivist principle when I came to meet Ernst von Glasersfeld. We, the research group in Bielefeld (Bauersfeld, Krummheuer, Voigt), had arrived at quite similar consequences, mainly from sociological reasons rather than from psychological and philosophical bases, which seem to have formed the basis for the genesis of the radical constructivist princi- ple (via Vico, Kant, and others; for more details about our position, see Bauersfeld, 1988, 1991, 1992b; Krummheuer & Voigt, 1991). The core convictions of our interactionist position are, in brief, as fol- lows: 138 1. Learning describes a process of personal life formation, a process of an inter- active adapting to a culture through active participation (which, in parallel, re- versely constitutes the culture itself) rather than a transmission of norms, knowl- edge, and objectified items. 2. Meaning is with the use of words, sentences, or signs and symbols rather than in the related sounds, signs, or representations. 3. Languaging describes a social practice (the French parole), serving in commu- nication for pointing at shared experiences and for orientation in the same culture, rather than an instrument for the direct transportation of sense or as a carrier of at- tached meanings. 4. Knowing or remembering something denotes the momentary activation of op- tions from experienced actions (in their totality) rather than a storable, deliber- ately treatable, and retrievable object-like item, called knowledge, from a loft, called memory. 5. Mathematizing describes a practice based on social conventions rather than the applying of a universally applicable set of eternal truths; according to Davis and Hersh (1980), this holds for mathematics itself. 6. (Internal) representations are taken as individual constructs, emerging through social interaction as a viable balance between the person's actual interests and re- HEINRICH BAUERSFELD The middle position is meant for and acts (at least for us) as a link between the two extremes. Many of the recent US reinterpretations of Vygotsky will fall under the collectivist perspectives, insofar as these usually neglect the social interactionist insights. In contrast, early applications of the radical constructivist principle will more likely belong to the individualistic views. Surely, there is an abundance of different perspectives in between and overlapping the extremes. Thus the scheme can mark poles only. 5. CONSEQUENCES FOR ELEMENTARY EDUCATIONAL PRACTICE Theorists often divide over the choice of guiding principles while maintaining a consensus on the rules specifying legitimate inferences from them. (Peter Galison, 1987, p. 244) Both extremes, the individualistic and the collectivist stream, have their convincing practices in general education: The perhaps most famous case of an individualistically oriented educational practice is Pestalozzi's work in Stans, where he collected and educated the orphans left from the Swiss lib- eration war with France, reported in his Letter from Stans (1799). However, 139 alized constraints, rather than an internal one-to-one mapping of pregiven realities or a fitting reconstruction of "the" world. 7. Using visualizations and embodiments with the related intention of using them as didactical means depends on taken-as-shared social conventions rather than on a plain reading or the discovering of inherent or inbuilt mathematical structures and meanings. 8. Teaching describes the attempt to organize an interactive and reflexive process, with the teacher engaging in a constantly continuing and mutually differentiating and actualizing of activities with the students, and thus the establishing and maintaining of a classroom culture, rather than the transmission, introduction, or even rediscovery of pregiven and objectively codified knowledge. (Bauersfeld 1992b) 4. A SIMPLIFIED OVERVIEW We now can arrange the identified basal positions into a simple schema (following an idea from Jörg Voigt): Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
Ma'lumotlar bazasi mualliflik huquqi bilan himoyalangan ©fayllar.org 2024
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling
ma'muriyatiga murojaat qiling