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1994 Book DidacticsOfMathematicsAsAScien
Rosalind Sutherland concentrates on the effect of programming environ-
ments such as Logo, BASIC, or spreadsheets on learning fundamental mathematical concepts such as variables. She clearly points out the different needs and habits of programming in mathematics education versus the mainframe habit (considered outdated) of most programming teachers who favor top-down programming and thinking in advance in contrast to the in- teractive style of work in mathematical programming that has proven so successful. By presenting examples of students' work with Logo and spreadsheets, the author shows that it may be mistaken to assume that students can first express a general relationship in natural language and then somehow trans- late this into computer language. When working on a new and challenging problem, students tend to formulate general relationships by interacting with the computer language. The computer-based language becomes incorpo- rated into their thinking and communication and helps to structure the gen- eralizing process. In the spreadsheet environment, the use of pointing (to different cells on the screen) is also an important mediator in the generaliz- BERNARD WINKELMANN 173 ing process. By directly interacting with the language whilst working at the computer, students develop a way of using the language to express their mathematical ideas. David Tall, in his paper on computer environments for the learning of mathematics, describes the growth of mathematical knowledge in students as vertical growth – encapsulation of processes into concepts – and horizon- tal growth – combining and understanding the linking of different represen- tations of the same concept. Carefully designed computer environments may take a specific role between the inanimate natural environment and interpersonal communications: In a cybernetic mode, they may react according to preordained rules. Examples in the paper range from simulative explorations in Newtonian mechanics over geometric environments, which allow enactive and visual manipulations, arithmetic understanding through multiple-linked representations, to generic organizers in calculus, which help the student to build the first steps in more subtle understandings of the concept of differentiability. The author shows the possibilities and specific design criteria such as selective construction: To help the learner cope with the cognitive load of information processing, the computer can be used to carry out specific operations internally so that the student can focus on the others and on the conceptual outcome of those operations; at different times in the learning process, the student can focus on different aspects of the knowledge structure. Some dangers are also pointed out that often result from the differences between the concepts in the mathematical mind and the only approximating and finite representations by the computer. The role of cognitive tools in mathematics teaching is dealt with in the paper by Tommy Dreyfus. He explicitly discusses the possibilities and issues raised by the growing number of mathematically based and didactically based tools available in mathematics teaching such as Computer Algebra Systems or David Tail's Graphics Calculus. He starts with the discussion of an introductory example: the use of a general purpose spreadsheet for learning about some aspects of discrete dynamical processes in one dimen- sion. On the basis of the example, the author points out that computer tools should act not only as amplifiers (saving time on computations and making graphing easy in the above example) but also, and more importantly, as re- organizers. Thereby mathematics itself becomes different for the learner: New tools change cognition. This introduces new opportunities, but also new problems and new tasks (for curriculum developers, teachers, and students). As problems, the issue of why and how to learn mathematical techniques that are routinely solved by computers, the proper design of unified or diversified, mathematically or didactically based tools, and the black box problem are discussed: How much of the inner working of a tool should the student know in order to understand the mathematics and efficiently use the tool? All three problems have no strict solutions; they 174 INTRODUCTION TO CHAPTER 4 need to be studied in concrete settings of concrete curricula, and, on the other hand, they pose deep questions to the process of constructing curricula itself. In contrast to the first three papers in this chapter, which describe the ac- tual use of computers in the mathematical classroom and the problems and controversies involved, the closing paper by Gerhard Holland on intelligent tutorial systems is more concerned with potential uses and developments for the future. The author names the reasons why tutorial systems still have lit- tle impact on everyday mathematics teaching and learning: the demands they exert on hard- and software, and the reluctance of teachers and didacti- cians toward tutorial systems caused by negative experiences with (unintelligent) programmed instruction. The paper aims at initiating a quali- fied debate about the significance of tutorial systems for mathematics in- struction and for research into mathematics education. It describes the clas- sical architecture of an intelligent tutorial system as an integrated informa- tion-processing system having an expert module, an environmental module, a module for student modeling, and a tutor module. This is exemplified by the system HERON for solving word problems; and the paradigm of an in- telligent tutorial system as a private teacher is opposed to the concept of a mathematical microworld with tutorial support. Then, to some extent, the author's own approach to solve the implementation problem of such tutorial systems is presented as a somewhat simplified architecture of a task-ori- ented intelligent tutorial system that reduces development costs and demand on system resources by concentrating on more narrowly defined goals in the realm of exercising the use of concepts that are already understood in prin- ciple. So not only didactical and technical problems of tutorial systems are discussed but also possible solutions that might have greater impact on di- dactical research and development in the near future. Because technology, and especially computers, are nowadays a main force of innovation and a challenging field of research, the topic is also dealt with in papers in other chapters of this book. I shall just name the paper by James T. Fey, who discusses specific influences of computers, and that of James J. Kaput, whose discussion on representations is deeply concerned with computerized environments. BERNARD WINKELMANN 175 REFERENCES: Cornu, B., & Ralston, A. (Eds.). (1992). The influence of computers and informatics on mathematics and its teaching. Paris: UNESCO. Fey, J. (1989). Technology and mathematics education: A survey of recent developments and important problems. Educational Studies in Mathematics, 20, 237-272. Graf, K. D., Fraser, R., Klingen, L., Stewart, J, & Winkelmann, B. (1992). The effect of computers on the school mathematics curriculum. In B. Cornu & A. Ralston (Eds.), The influence of computers and informatics on mathematics and its teaching (pp. 57-79). Paris: UNESCO. THE ROLE OF PROGRAMMING: TOWARDS EXPERIMENTAL MATHEMATICS Within this chapter, I shall discuss the developing use of computer pro- gramming within mathematics education, describing what are, in my view, the important aspects of programming from the point of view of teaching and learning mathematics. By programming, I mean a means of communi- cating between the user and the binary code of the computer. From this perspective, a programming language must have some notation that is re- lated to the set of problems to be solved. Programming is essentially prob- lem-solving that involves defining and refining a problem and trying out a range of solutions. It also involves identifying the relevant variables in a problem and expressing relationships between these variables. Dividing a problem into smaller and more manageable parts is a valuable problem- solving and programming activity. Logo, for example, is a language in which the user can write procedures (sequences of code) to solve separate Download 5.72 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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