Chem 28 – analytical chemistry
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Chem-28-Finals-Reviewer
CHEM 28 – ANALYTICAL CHEMISTRY Analytical Chemistry – involves separating, identifying, and determining amount(s) of component(s) in a sample Sample – material of interest to be analyzed Analyte – substance being determined in a sample Titrant – standard solution of known concentration 2 Areas of Analytical Chemistry: 1. Qualitative Analysis – identification of substance 2. Quantitative Analysis - measurement of amount of a particular substance in the sample Classification of Quantitative Analysis: A. Based on the type of Analytical Method a. Classical (Stoichiometric) Methods – “Wet Analysis” 1. Gravimetric – amount of analyte determined from amount formed 2. Volumetric (Titrimetric) – amount of analyte determined from measured volume of titrant
1. Acid-Base Titration 2. Precipitation Titration 3. Complexometric Titration 4. Redox Titration b. Instrumental (Non-Stoichiometric or Physiochemical) Methods – “Modern Analysis” – some measurable physical property is taken as a measure of amount of analyte that requires calibration curve/plot 1. Spectrophotometry - applies Beer’s Law 2. Electrochemical – applies Ohm’s Law and Potenciometry 3. Chromatographic Method – Gas Chromatograph, High Performance Liquid Chromatograph, Chromatogram B. According to amount of sample analyzed – based upon size of sample taken for analysis a. Macro Analysis – sample weighs 0.1g or more b. Semi-Micro Analysis – sample weighs between 10 and 100mg c. Micro Analysis – sample weighs between 1 and 10 mg d. Ultramicro Analysis – sample weighs on the order of ìg
e. Submicro Analysis – sample weighs less than 0.1 ìg or
less C. According to relative amount of analyte – based on amount of analyte in relation to sample a. Major Constituent – analyte > 1% of the sample b. Minor Constituent – analyte ammounts to 0.01% - 1% of the sample c. Trace Constituent – analyte < 0.01% of the sample D. According to Extent of Desired Analysis - based on number and type of constituents determined and reported a. Complete/Ultimate Analysis – amount of each component determined; amounts for each constituent present in the sample and should represent 100% of the sample b. Single Component/Partial Analysis – most common; not all constituents determined c. Proximate Analysis – amount of certain selected constituents in a sample is determined; similar components are determined and grouped together d. Kjeldall Analysis – for proteins, crude fat and crude fiber analysis using ammonia and HCl and back titration to get the % protein
1. Selecting a method 2. Sampling 3. Sampling Processing/Preparation 4. Eliminating Interferences a. Interferences – species other than analyte that affects the final measurement b. Masking – conversion of interferences into forms not detected by the analytical method through the addition of a reagent that reacts with the potential interference c. Solvent Extraction – involves an organic phase and a liquid phase; related to liquid-liquid extraction which involves the removal of salt and purification d. Chemical Derivation – involves the conversion of the analyte to desired form and its extraction 5. Measuring Property of Analyte 6. Calculation and Interpretation of Results Factors to be considered in Defining the Analytical Method: 1. Nature of Analysis – elemental or molecular; repetitive or intermittent (number of samples to be analyzed); destructive or non-destructive; sensitivity of method 2. Restrictions due to physical and chemical properties of species of interest – e.g. radioactive, corrosive, volatile + sample stability 3. Potential Interference – arise from similar physical or chemical properties of other species in the sample; a. for separation steps – choose selective method b. LOD – minimum concentration of analyte that can be detected by the method c. Sensitivity of method – measures the ability of method to discriminate between small differences in analyte concentration 4. Concentration range of species to be studied 5. Time available for determinations – important in manufacturing industry due to some analysis easy in practice but some require hours of tedious attention 6. Analytical facilities available and availability of equipment a. Accuracy desired (reliability of analysis) b. Cost of analysis – equipment + reagents + analyst time
1. Sampling – selecting a representative sample of material to be analyzed; may be manual or continuous 2. Sample Preparation a. Preparation of lab sample for analysis, measure mass or volume of sample and dissolve sample in approximate solvents using highly purified chemicals available (more expensive) – analytical reagent grade chemicals + deionized and distilled or triple distilled or ultrapure H 2 O
have serious effects on the experiment c. Have to consider also stability of solutions (analytical reagent solution and sample) may decompose 3. Isolation of Analyte a. sample treatment (conversion of analyte to measurable form) b. interfering substances removed in this step or converted to noninterfering forms or remove analyte from rest of sample c. do analytical separations such as precipitation, electrolysis, solvent extraction, ion exchange and chromatography 4. Determination Step (Measurement) a. Utilize appropriate analytical method for routine analysis - usually instrumental methods b. To have confidence in analytical procedure – can method using reference standards (samples similar in composition to unknown sample and with precisely known content of constituent to be determined) e.g. highly reliable standard materials usually used for instrumental methods c. Standards treated in the same way as unknown – special standard is ideally zero result d. Blank – simulated unknown that contains none of the analyte being determined; gives a check on reagents used in analytical procedure 5. Calculation and Interpretation of Result a. Make blank corrections using the blanks Lot – total material from which samples are taken Bulk/ Gross Sample – material taken from the lot for analysis for archiving (study for future references) Aliquot – small test portions of lab samples used for individual analysis
different regions for different compositions) get representative composite sample
crushing and grinding, then screening/sieving to desired Analytical Subsample – Extract/Digestate – Analysis – Result – Field Subsample – Field Sample – extrapolation of analytical result back to decision unit – Decision Unit
1. Essential Water – water that is an integral part of a solid chemical compound; exists in stoichiometric amount
a. Water of Crystallization – in stable solid hydrate e.g. CaC
2 O 4 ⋅2H 2 O; BaCl 2 ⋅H 2 O b. Water of Constitution – water formed when pure solid is decomposed by heat or other chemical treatment e.g. Ca(OH) 2(s)
(s) +
H 2 O (g) and 2KHSO 4(s)
2 S 2 O 7(s)
+ H 2 O (g)
2. Nonessential Water – water that is physically retained as a solid; does not occur in stoichiometric amount a. Adsorbed Water – water retained on the surface of solids b. Sorbed Water – held as condensed phase in interstices or capillaries of colloidal solid like starch, protein, charcoal and silica gel; often in large amount c. Occluded Water – entrapped in microscopic pockets spaced irregular throughout solid crystals; in rocks and minerals
1. Oven Drying a. Simplest procedure b. Drying at 105 °C – remove bulk H 2 O c. Drying at 180 °C – remove almost all occluded H 2 O
d. Sample heated at 100 °C – determines weight loss in solid sample 2. Use of Moisture Balance – analytical balance with heart source 3. Chemical Methods – like Karl Fisher Method (non- gaseous Titration), make use of chemical reactivity of H 2 Ol used in pharmaceuticals, food and hard candy a. Analysis made on sample as received – H2O as part of the sample’s composition b. Analysis on a dried basis – H2O removed usually by drying %𝑋
'( *+,+-.+/ = %𝑋 %𝑁𝑉𝑀 1.+2 /*-+/ Where x is the nonvolatile analyte and NVM is nonvolatile matter
Lot Representative Bulk Sample
Sample
Aliquot Dissolving and Decomposing the Sample: Use solvent of progressively increasing selectivity solvents for dissolving sample: 1. H2O
2. Aqueous Solutions of Common Acids and Bases 3. Aqua Regia: 3V HCl = 1V HNO 3
1. With inorganic acids in open vessels like OHs, HCl, HNO3, H2SO4 or HClO4 (potential explosive nature) a. Wet Ashing – process of oxidation decomposition of organic samples by liquid OHs or mixture (hot plate, beaker, watch glass in hood) at least 3 days 2. Microwave Decomposing/ Digestion – either closed or open vessels – higher pressure and temperature achieved; easy to autonate (a few minutes process but expensive equipment) 3. High-Temperature Ignition in air or oxygen – crucibles in a furnace; dry ashing, combustion tube methods or combustion with oxygen in sealed container 4. Fusion in molten salt media sample mixed with the
(300-1000 °C) in Platinum crucibles where the amount of flux >10x sample mass Common Fluxes: 1. Alkali Metal carbonates, hydroxides, peroxides and borates – basic fluxes for acidic materials 2. Acidic Fluxes – pyrosulfates, acrid fluorides and boric oxide 3. Oxidizing Fluxes – Sodium Peroxide 4. Na 2 CO 3 – used for silicates and other refracting oxides Concentration of Solutions: Molarity – number of moles of solute over liters of solution 𝑀 3 = #𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
(19:;+ 𝑉
= #𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑠
(19:;+ 𝑉 =<(19:;-12 Analytical Molarity/Formality – total number of moles solute, regardless of its chemical state in 1L solution Equilibrium Molarity – molar concentration of a particular species in solution at equilibrium Normality – number if equivalents of solute/liters of solution 𝑀 =
#𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝑉
= 𝐺
𝑉 < × 𝑀𝑊
(19:;+ 𝑁 =
#𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑉
= 𝐺
𝑉 < × 𝐸𝑊
(19:;+ #𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑠 = 𝑁 × 𝑉 < =
𝐺 𝐸𝑊 𝑁 = 𝑛 +9+,;*12( 𝑀 𝐸𝑊 = 𝐹𝑊 𝑛 +9+,;*12( 𝐺 =K = 𝑀 × 𝑉 =< × 𝑀𝑊 = 𝑁 × 𝑉 =< × 𝐸𝑊
Determination of Equivalent Weights: 1. In Neutralization Reactions – EW of substance participating in the neutralization reaction is the amount of substance that either reacts with or supplies 1 mol of H +
𝐸𝑊 L = 𝐹𝑊 L # 𝑜𝑓 𝐻 𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑚𝑠 𝑡𝑜 𝑏𝑒 𝑓𝑟𝑒𝑒𝑑 𝑢𝑝 2. In Redox Reaction – Ew of a participant is that amount that reacts with or provides one mole of the reacting cation if it is univalent, ½ mole if it is divalent and 1/3 mole if it is trivalent. The cation referred to is the cation directly involved in the analytical reaction
%𝑤 =
𝑔 (19:;+
𝑔 (19:;-12
× 100 %𝑣 =
𝑉 (19:;+
𝑉 (19:;-12
× 100 % 𝑤 𝑣 =
𝑔 (19:;+
𝑉 =<(19:;-12 × 100
𝑝𝑝𝑚 =
𝑔 (:W(;'2,+ 𝑔 ('=X9+
× 10 Y 𝑝𝑝𝑏 = 𝑔 (:W(;'2,+ 𝑔 ('=X9+
× 10 Z
𝑝𝑝𝑚 = 𝑚𝑔 (19:;+ 𝑉 <(19:;-12 𝑝𝑝𝑏 =
𝑔 (19:;+
𝑉 <(19:;-12 𝑝𝑋 = − 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑙𝑜𝑔 𝑋
equivalent to or reacts with a fixed volume of solution (usually 1 mL)
𝑀 ,12,+2;*';+/ × 𝑉 ,12,+2;*';+/ = 𝑀 /-9:;+/
× 𝑉 /-9:;+/
STOICHIOMETRY: Consider the stoichiometric reaction: 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑏𝐵 ↔ 𝑐𝐶 + 𝑑𝐷 In Volumetric Analysis, consider only the analyte and the titrant (A and B in the stoichiometric reaction)
#𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑏
Mmol Approach: #𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴 = 𝑎 𝑏
Equivalent Approach: #𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐴 = #𝑒𝑞𝑢𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑙𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝐵 meq Approach: #𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝐴 = #𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝐵 A is either solid or liquid: If A is liquid: #𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴 = (𝑀 × 𝑉 < ) e #𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 = (𝑀 × 𝑉 =< ) e #𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝐴 = (𝑁 × 𝑉 =< )
If A is solid: #𝑚𝑜𝑙𝑒𝑠 𝐴 = 𝐺 e (K)
𝑀𝑊 e (
K =19+)
#𝑚𝑚𝑜𝑙 𝐴 = 𝐺 e (=K) 𝑀𝑊 e (
=K ==19)
#𝑚𝑒𝑞 𝐴 = 𝐺 e (K) 𝐸𝑊 e (
=K =+f)
Gravimetric Analysis – based upon the measurement of the mass of substance that has known composition and is chemically related to the analyte
soluble precipitate 𝑎𝐴 + 𝑟𝑅 → 𝐴𝑎𝑅𝑟 (i)
𝐺 e = 𝐺 X × 𝐺
j %𝐴 =
𝐺 e 𝐺 ('=X9+ × 100%
Gravimetric Factor – ratio of Formula Weights (FWs) used to convert mass of one chemical formula to another based on the stoichiometric relation between the two 𝐺 (1:Kk; l1* (:W(; = 𝐺 K-.+2 (:W(; × 𝑎 × 𝐹𝑊
(1:Kk; l1* (:W(; 𝑏 × 𝐹𝑊
K-.+2 (:W(; Volatilization Gravimetry – analyte converted to a gas of known chemical composition Electrogravimetry – analyte separated by deposition on an electrode and mass of the deposited product used to measure analyte concentration
1. Reaction should be complete and quantitative 2. Substance weighed should be pure and of definite chemical composition 3. Precipitating solution should have sufficiently low solubility 4. Precipitate is easily filterable and washable
1. Accurate Weighing of Sample 2. Dissolution of Weighed Sample 3. Removal of Interfering Species 4. Adjustment of experimental environment 5. Addition of experimental environment 6. Separation of precipitate from solution 7. Washing of precipitate 8. Drying of precipitate to constant weight 9. Determination of amount of analyte in sample using stoichiometry
Ions in solution (10 -8 cm) → Colloidal Particles (10 -7 to 10
-4 cm
– electrically charged) → precipitate (>10 -4 cm) Stages of Formation of Precipitate: 𝑀 m + 𝑋 n ↔ 𝑀𝑋 (() 1. Supersaturation 2. Nucleation – clustering of M+ and X- ions ton form nuclei 3. Particle growth or x-tal growth – further growth of nuclei Mechanism of precipitation process is still not fully understood but quantitatively the effect of variables can be accounted for Assumption: particle size is related to relative supersaturation
𝑅𝑒𝑙𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝑆𝑢𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑠𝑎𝑡𝑢𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 = 𝑄 − 𝑆 𝑆
S = its equilibrium solubility Particle Size of precipitate varies inversely with average relative supersaturation Large (Q-S)/S – greater number of nuclei and smaller precipitate particles Smaller (Q-S)/S – smaller number of nuclei and larger particles (crystalline precipitate)
If nucleation predominates, get larger number of smaller particles In crystal growth predominates, fewer particles of relatively large particles are obtained (desired outcome)
Experimental Control of Particle Size (variables that minimize relative supersaturation): 1. Elevate Temperature (to increase S) - precipitate from hot solution 2. Dilute Solution (to minimize Q) 3. Slow addition of precipitating agent with good stirring (to lower average value of Q) 4. Adjust factors that increase solubility e.g precipitate or use of complexing agents (more acidic, comx is much more soluble) 5. Digestion or ageing precipitate (precipitate in contact with mother liquor at increased temperature)
into a filterable solid Peptization – reverse process of coagulation Ways to coagulate a colloidal suspension: ▪ Heating with stirring to decrease number of adsorbed ions ▪ Adding an electrolyte to shrink counter-ions layer so particles are closer and agglomerate
compound is carried out of a solution during precipitation of a desired precipitate 4 types of Coprecipitation: 1. Surface Adsorption – common in coagulated colloids due to large surface area; normally soluble compound carried out of solution on the surface of a coagulated colloid; minimized by washing with volatile electrolyte or by reprecipitation 2. Mixed-Crystal Formation – a contaminant ion (with some charge and almost the same size) replaces an ion in the lattice of a crystal )e.g. PbSO 4 in BaSO 4 or MnS in CdS); minimized by separating interfering ion or using a different precipitating agent that does not give mixed-crystals with ions in question. 3. Mechanical Entrapment – a portion of the solution is trapped in a tiny pocket; may be minimized by employing conditions of low supersaturation and by digestion 4. Occlusion – foreign ions in the counter-ion layer may become trapped or occluded within the rapidly growing crystals may be minimized by employing conditions of low supersaturation and by digestion Homogenous Precipitation – technique in which the precipitating agent is chemically generated in the solution via a slow chemical reaction; slow appearance of precipitating agent and relative supersaturation is kept low Post Precipitation – phenomenon where the precipitate of an insoluble substance is followed by the gradual precipitation of a chemically related substance which is normally soluble
Counter-Ion Layer: change a precipitate to the primary layer
Primary Adsorbed Layer: Common Ion
Electrical Double Layer of a Colloid Download 383.93 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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