Comparativetypolog y
Typological categories of English and Uzbek words
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Typological categories of English and Uzbek words. The words of any language are characterised by their ability to express definite notions existing in this society, thus changing their forms. Most of the notions existing in the society have common peculiarities, i.e. they have universal character. Among the linguistic categories which can be traced in most of the languages of the world we can see the categories which display typologically general character but can be expressed in different languages in different ways. Studying these linguistic facts figuring out their similarities and differences is of much importance for the man of letters, especially for the graduates of the language faculties of universities who are going to become English teachers and interpreters in near future. For instance, such linguistic notions as case, gender, person, tense voice, possession, etc. are of general character for the comparing languages, but they may be expressed by typologically different means of the language. In this chapter we try to generalise the main means of expressing the notions which are of peculiar type for the comparing languages.
The Uzbek language is said to have six cases: бош, =арат=ич, тушум, ырин-пайт, жыналиш ва чи=иш келишиклари. The Uzbek бош келишиги (common or subject case) corresponds in meaning and function to the English common case; both of them are unmarked member of the case opposition and perform similar syntactic function (of a subject) in the sentence structure. English common case and other five cases of Uzbek are marked members of the case opposition in both languages. The English possessive case is marked by the suffix -’s which can sometimes be substituted by the preposition ‘of’ (e.g.: my father’s room > the room of my father) and therefore is sometimes called ‘of-genitive’ case. This case denotes possession of a thing or a person and in Uzbek it has its correspondence in the Uzbek =арат=ич келишиги which is expressed by the case ending suffix -нинг. Dealing with notion of possession one should keep in mind that in Uzbek this category may be expressed not only by the nouns but also their antecedents (modifiers) in the pleonastic phrases such as Менинг опа-м, Сизнинг паспорт-ингиз. In this case we have to face the problem of redundancy and often try to avoid it using the modified noun only which contains the possessive suffix. e.g: Опа-м келди. In this case the suffix of possession can be rendered in English an in Russian by means of special possessive pronouns. e.g.: My sister came. Моя сестра пришла . Meanings and functions of the other Uzbek cases may be denoted in Uzbek either by means of prepositions (which displays English as an analytical language whereas Uzbek reveals its ability as a flective language) or by word order. For instance, the meaning and function of the Uzbek тушум келишиги is expressed in Uzbek by means of the case ending -ни which denotes the object acted upon and it may be expressed in English by means of word order which is characterised in this language to be very strict in comparison with Russian or Uzbek (e.g: Кырдим юзингни =олдим балога, =айга борайин энди давога? - Видел я твои очи черные (и заболел), куда мне теперь идти на лечение?) Some English grammarians (O.Curme, M.Deutschbein) recognise word order in English as dative case). Dealing with this case one has to keep in mind the structure of the sentence i.e. the word order in the sentences of the comparing languages - SOV (in Uzbek e.g.: Мен укамни кырдим) and SVO (in English I saw my brother). The Uzbek ырин-пайт келишиги denotes the place of the thing or a person in the space and it can be rendered in English by means of prepositions at, in, on, by, over, above, among, between, behind etc. (e.g.: Китоб жавонда -The book is in the bookcase). It should be kept in mind that most of the English prepositions may contain (more) additional meaning denoting the place of the thing or a person. (Cf.: in -ичи-да, behind-ор=аси-да, between-ораси-да, under - ости-да, etc.) The Uzbek жыналиш келишиги denotes the direction of an action performed by the subject of the sentence and is expressed by means of the case ending -га. It can be rendered in English also by means of prepositions to, at, into, etc. e.g: У (йигит) мактаб-га кетди. He went to school. У(=из) мен-га =аради. She looked at me.
In accordance with their lexical meanings the nouns of the comparing nouns may be classed as belonging to the masculine, feminine and neuter genders. Names of male beings are usually masculine (e.g.: man, husband, boy, son, nephew, bull, ox, ram(wether), cock, stallion -ота, ы\ил, эркак, щыкиз, бу=а, новвос, =ыч=ор, хыроз, ай\ир) and names of female beings are feminine (e.g.: woman, lady, girl, daughter, wife, niece, cow, heifer (\унаж), ewe [ju:](совли=), hen, mare - аёл, хоним, =из(бола), =из (фарзанд), хотин, сигир, \унажин, совли=, макиён, байтал). All other nouns are said to be neuter gender (e.g.: pencil, flower, rain, bird, sky - =алам, гул, ём\ир, парранда, =уш, осмон). Gender finds its formal expression in the replacement of nouns by the personal pronouns in the third person singular, i.e. he, she, it. However there some nouns in English which may be treated as either makes or females. e.g.: friend, cousin, doctor, neighbour, worker, etc. The same can be said about the Uzbek terms of kinship. e.g.: ; жиян, =ариндош, холавачча, =уда, =ышни, табиб, ишчи. They are said to be of common (neuter) gender. When there is no need to make distinction of sex the masculine pronoun is used for these nouns. There are three ways of expressing the category of gender in the comparing languages: morphological, syntactical and lexical. Morphological way of expressing the category of gender is realised by adding suffixes of gender to the stem of the word. It is a highly developed way of expressing gender in Russian by means of suffixes ending in: a) consonants to be masculine, e.g.: дом, стол, праздник; b) vowels as -а, -я to be feminine. e.g.: мама, старуха, тетя; c) vowels -о, -е to be neuter. e.g.: ружьё, море, окно и т.п. English has the only suffix -ess which is used to denote feminine gender. e.g.: host-ess, actr-ess, waitr-ess, princ-ess, lion-ess, tiger-ess. Feminine gender in Uzbek may often be expressed by means of the suffix -а which is supposed to be of Arabic origin. e.g.: - раис-а, вазир-а, шоир-а, муаллим-а, котиб-а etc. In order to denote the gender syntactic way is also possible. In this case different kinds of combinations of words are formed in which adjunct word (modifier) usually denotes the sex of the head word. e.g.: man servant -=арол, maid servant - о=соч, boy friend-ы\ил бола ырто=, girl friend-=из бола ырто=, tom cat-эркак мушук, tabby cat-ур\очи мушук, he-wolf-эркак быри, she wolf-ур\очи быри, he goat-така, she goat-она эчки, etc. As is seen from these examples English gender denoted by a syntactic combination (man servant, she goat) can be expressed in Uzbek both by syntactically and lexically.(=арол, она эчки). In most cases gender can be expressed lexically, i.e. by the stem of the noun only. e.g.: father-ота, uncle-амаки, niece-(=из) жиян, sister-in-law-келин, lord-жаноб, also names of animals, such as mare-бия, tiger (эрка) йылбарс, ram-=ыч=ор, etc. Names of people can also denote the gender of the person who owns this name. e.g.: Arthur, Christopher, John - Ащмаджон, Бащодир, Шащобиддин, denoting male beings and Mary, Christine, Nelly, - Cайёра, Мещринисо, Гулойим, etc. Nouns denoting various kinds of vessels (ship, boat, yacht, life-raft), the noun ‘car’, as well as the names of countries are sometimes referred to as feminine gender, i.e. by means of ‘she’. This fact is usually called personification. e.g.: a. Sam joined the famous whaler ‘Globe’. She was a ship on which any young man would be proud to sail.
Such nouns as ‘storm, thunder, wind, war, death, grave’ are treated as masculine gender. Nouns like ‘nature, country, mercy, faith, hope, modesty’ are used as feminine gender. Cf.: Он работал_ He worked
As we know that the category of plurality denotes more than oneness of thins , people or phenomena. Grammatically it can be based in English on the opposition of ‘zero morpheme and the suffix -s, -en, and root changing abilities of some nouns’, i.e. #|| -s, -en. In Uzbek it is based on the opposition of zero morpheme (#) and suffix -лар, i.e. # || -лар. Among the parts of speech this category is distinguished grammatically by nouns, pronouns an verbs. In comparing languages this category may also be denoted lexically by numerals. (e.g.: two, fifteen, thirty, thousand - икки, ын беш, ыттиз, юз, минг). Numerals are not used in the grammatical plural forms because in the plural form they become substuntivized i.e. they become nouns. (иккилар, олтинчилар). It should be kept in mind that there are languages having ‘dual’ and trial’ numbers. (Cf.: OE prounouns - ic-wit-we where ‘wit’ denoted a dual number).
English nouns can express the notion of plurality in the following ways: a) by means of suffixes :
-en (ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren); -a datum-data, sanatorium -sanatoria, phenomenon- phenomena) etc. b) by changing the root vowel (man-men, goose-geese)
a) by opposing the finite verbs in the third person singular to the other forms with zero morpheme: live-s - live# b) by means of suppletive forms of auxiliary verbs: am, is-are; was-were; have-has -had The Uzbek verbs usually express plurality by means of the following suffixes: a) -лар ( келди-)лар; b) -миз, -сиз, -нгиз, -дилар (бора-миз, келадилар); c) -ш, -иш (кел-ишди); This category can be expressed by means of personal pronouns in both languages: Cf.: I-we; me-us; he|she|it - they; In Uzbek ; мен-биз; сен-сизлар; у-улар; Lexically this category may be expressed in both languages with the help of numerals. e.g.: army-=ышин, dual-икилик, majority-кыпчилик, family-оила, pair-жуфт, double-икки(лантирилган), etc. Plurality can sometimes be expressed by means of prepositions (between, among-ыртасида, орасида) adverbs (arm-in-arm - =ыллашиб), indefinite pronouns (some-бир неча, анча, бироз), verbs (join-=ышилмо=, бирлашмо=, gather-тыпланмо=, get together-йи\илм=, unite-бирлашмо=), also by quantitative markers ( two-seater, many staged, two-storied); and in Uzbek (кыпщад, =ышари=, учкыприк). Typological category of person The category of person should be dealt with in close connection with the category of number (plurality). Because in the languages of Indo-European family these categories are expressed by one and the same morpheme simultaneously, i.e. a morpheme denoting number at the same time expresses person as well. For instance, in Latin the morpheme -nt in such forms as amant, habent, legunt, amabant, habebunt, etc. expresses simultaneously the third person and the plural number. In the comparing languages the category of person is a characteristic feature of pronouns and verbs. They (languages) make distinction between the three classes of personal pronouns denoting respectively the person(s) speaking (the first person), the person(s) spoken to (the second person) and the person(s) (or things) spoken about ( the third person).
The category of person in verbs is represented by the 1st, 2nd, and 3rd person and it expresses the relations between the speaker, the person or people spoken to and other person or people spoken about. However this system doesn’t hold good for the modern English verb and this is for two reasons: 1) there is no distinction of persons in the plural number. Thus the form ‘live’ may within the plural number be connected with a subject of any person. e.g.: I
2) there is no distinction of numbers in the 1- and 2-person. Thus the form ‘live’ in these persons may refer to both one and more than one subject. Thus the opposition 3p. s. -all other persons expresses relation of the 3p.s. with any person of both numbers, i.e. stem-s | stem# The marked member of the opposition differs greatly from that of unmarked one both in form and in meaning. It should be kept in mind that in the Subjunctive mood the form ‘live’ denotes any person of both numbers. The ending ‘-s’ having four meanings to express simultaneously is of course a synthetic feature, standing rather by itself in the general structure of Modern English. There a special subclass of the English verbs which do not fit into the system of person and number described above and they must be treated separately both in a practical study of the language and in theoretical analysis. They are called ‘modal verbs ‘can, may, must’, etc. Being ‘defective verbs’ they do not admit any suffix to their stem and do not denote any person or number and usually accompany the notional verbs in speech giving them additional meanings of notions as ‘ability, permission, necessity or obligation’ etc. The verb ‘be’ has a system of its own both in the present indicative and in the past:
There is one more special class of the English verbs called impersonal verbs. Having the suffix ‘-s’ in the third person, singular of the present simple they do not denote any person or thing as the doer of the action. Such verbs usually denote natural phenomena such as to rain, to hail, to snow, to drizzle, to thunder, to lighten, to warm up; e.g.: It often rains in autumn. It is thundering and lightening. The personal system of the Uzbek verbs is as follows:
In Uzbek we have no the so called modal verbs and impersonal verbs as it is understood in English or Russian (дождит, смеркается, темнеет, похолодало). The functions of the modal verbs are performed in Uzbek by means of the adjectives such as зарур, керак, даркор, лозим, etc. As to the problem of impersonal verbs in Uzbek we use the so called unipersonal verbs which are combined only with one and the same nouns denoting the names of natural phenomena, such as =ор, ём\ир, дыл, ча=мо=, etc. e.g.: Ём\ир ё\ади, Ча=мо= ча=ди. Dealing with the category of person attention must be drawn to the use of the pronominal forms in transposition. The affective value of such ‘metaphors’ may be traced in many modern languages. The first to be mentioned in English is the use of the personal pronouns ’we, you, they’ in patterns where they are synonymous with the formal generic ‘one’ which denotes anyone who occurs in a definite situation. Semantically it corresponds to the Uzbek generic words as ‘одам, киши, инсон. e.g.:
We shall see what we shall see. Та=дирда борини кырамиз We never know the value of the water till the well is dry. +уду= =уримагунча (Ари=дан о==ан) сувнинг =адрини билмаймиз
Нима эксанг шуни ырасан. Зар =адрини заргар билади. Билиб туриб билмасликка оламиз. Expressive affect of great subtlety will be found in the use of the pronoun ‘we’ in such examples: ‘I say’ said Hurstwood, as they came up the theatre lobby, we are exceedingly charming this evening. ‘How do we feel today?’ said the doctor facing the patient.
In the comparing languages the categories of tense and aspect are so closely merged together that it is impossible to treat them separately. One and the same form of the verb serves to express tense and aspect at the same time and therefore they should be regarded as a ‘tense-aspect forms ‘of the verb. In the comparing languages we distinguish three aspects of the verb forms; Simple (Common or Indefinite), Continuous and Perfect aspects. Combining with all the tense forms of the verb they form the so called ‘tense aspect forms of the verb’.
‘They call me Nancy’ , said the girl. I know him well. (Stative action) The verbs in the present simple may often be accompanied by adverbs of frequency such as often, sometimes, usually, seldom, never, etc. indicating habitual action. The main indicator of the English verb forms in the present simple is the opposeme ‘live | live-s’. (See the preceding chapter.) As has been mentioned above Past simple denotes an action which happened at a definite time before the moment of speech. Definite time of the action may be clarified by means of such time expressions as ‘yesterday, last week, two years ago, when I was a child, etc. The main indicator of the verb form in the past simple of the English verbs is the formant ‘-ed’ (for the regular verbs) and the change of the root vowels (or consonants) for the irregular verbs. e.g.: live-d, help-ed, give-gave, send-sent. (As to the verb forms in Uzbek see the table in the chapter dealing with the category of person.) The verbs in the Future Simple, as has been mentioned above, indicate the action which will or going to happen after the moment of speech. The main indicators of the future action is the auxiliaries ‘will (shall), and going to’ which usually precede the infinitive.
The Present Continuous expresses three ideas: 1) an activity happening now, i.e. at the moment of speech. Сf.: It is raining. The child is crying. They are looking at you. Ём\ир ё\аяпти. Ча=ало= йи\лаяпти. Улар сизга =арашаяпти. 2) an activity happening around now, but perhaps not at the moment of speech. Cf.: I’m reading a very interesting book on astrology these days. Шу кунларда мунажжимлик ща=ида жуда =изи= бир китоб ы=ияпман, 3) a planned future arrangement. Cf.: I’m leaving for London next week. Келаси щафтада Лондонга жынаяпман. Past Continuous of the English verb is formed by means of the combination of ‘was (were) -P1’ of the notional verb and denotes an action happening (in progress) at a definite time in the past. Definite time may be expressed by means of time expressions or by a clause of time connected to the principle one with the conjunctions while and when. In Uzbek in the past continuous the verbs may take the suffixes -аётган эди, -мо=да эди, e.g.: I was having a shower when you rang me up (at seven o’clock). - Cиз менга =ын\иро= =илганингизда (соат еттида) мен чымилаётган эдим. Compare: a) I was doing my homework at 7.00 last night. (Past Continuous - I was in the middle of the action.) b) I did my homework last night. (Past Simple - I started and finished) Future Continuous is formed by means of the auxiliary ‘will (or shall) be - P1’ of the notional verb and expresses an action taking place in progress at a definite time after the moment of speech. Cf.: I shall be waiting for you at the arrival hall at 5 o’clock (when you plane arrive at the the airport). - Cамолётингиз соат 5 да (аэропортга =ынган пайтда) мен сизни кутиш залида кутаётган ( кутиб турган) быламан. As is seen from this example Uzbek future continuous is expressed with the help of the suffix ‘-ётган’ and auxiliary verb ‘был-мо=‘.
e.g: I’ve travelled a lot in Africa. -Африка быйлаб кып саёхат =илганман, It can also express an action or state which began in the past and continues to the present.
a)an activity which continues to the present. e.g.: I’ve been waiting here for hours. b) to refer to an activity with a result in the present. e.g.: I’m hot because I’ve been running. Sometimes there is little or no difference in meaning between the Present Perfect Simple and Continuous. e.g.: How long have you worked here? How long have you been working here? It should be kept in mind that there is a special class of verbs that have the idea of a long time, such as wait, work, play, travel, etc. These verbs are usually used in the Present Perfect Continuous. e.g.: I’ve been playing tennis since I was a boy. The verbs that don’t have the idea of a long time such as find, start, buy, die, lose, break, stop, etc. and also verbs that express state such as like, love, know, have (possess) are not found in the Present Perfect Continuous. Past Perfect denotes an action in the past which happened before another action in the past. e.g.: When I arrived at the station the train had already gone. - Мен вокзалга етиб келганимда поезд алла=ачон жынаб кетган экан. Where (When I arrived at the station - Мен вокзалга етиб келганимда) denotes a definite time in the past. Compare the use of the Past Perfect and Past Simple in the following sentences: When I got home, John cooked a meal. (First I got home, then John cooked). -Мен уйга етиб келганимда(н кейин) Жон ов=ат пиширди. When I got home, John had cooked a meal.( John cooked a meal before I got home) - Мен уйга етиб келганимда Жон ов=ат пишириб =ыйган экан. Future Perfect expresses an activity that will be completed before a definite time in future. In English this notion is expressed by means of the combination ‘will (shall) have -PII’ of the notional verb. In Uzbek it is rendered with the help of ‘suffixes ‘-б, -иб’ & the auxiliary verb ‘- был(мо=).’ Cf.: I shall have finished my homework by 4 o’clock. - Мен уй ишларимни соат 4 гача тугаллаб быламан. Typological category of voice Voice is the form of the verb which serves to show whether the subject of the sentence is the agent or the object of the action expressed by the predicate verb. In other words as a grammatical category voice is the form of the verb which shows the relation between the action and its subject indicating whether the action is performed by the subject or passes on it. Accordingly there are two voices in English: a) active voice and b) passive voice. Active voice shows that the action is performed by its subject, that the subject is the doer of the action. It is formed from the pure stem of the finite form of the verb, i.e. the infinitive without the particle ‘to’. e.g.: I usually close the door at 5 o’clock. - Мен эшикни олатда соат 5 да ёпаман. Passive voice shows that the subject is acted upon i.e. the recipient of the action. It is formed in English by means of the auxiliary verb ‘to be’ in the required tense form and ‘Participle II’ of the notional verb. e.g.: The door is usually closed at 5 o’clock. It corresponds to the Uzbek ‘Мажщул нисбат’ of the verb. Cf.: Эшик одатда соат 5 да ёпилади. Transformational relations for voice may be symbolized as follows: N1-V act-N2 — N2-Vpass. - by-N1 . The choice of thepassive construction is often due to the fact that the agent is unknown, well known or the speaker prefers not to mention him|her. Sometimes passive constructions can also be formed by means of auxiliary ‘get’ which can function in a very similar way with ‘be’. e.g.: He got struck by a stone. -Унга =андайдир бир тош келиб урилди. My dress got caught on a nail. Кыйлагим бир михга илиниб =олди. In these examples ‘get’ seems closer to the true passive auxiliary ‘be’. Compare some more examples.: He gets punished regularly. - У доимий равишда жазоланиб туради. She got blamed for everything. - Щамма нарса учун у (=из) айбланарди. But it should be kept in mind that we can’t say ‘Gets he punished regularly?’ which means that unlike the passive auxiliary ‘be’ ‘get’ is so closely connected to the PII that it can’t be separated from notional verb and be used independently. English is rich with passive constructions: 1. Direct Passive, in which the subject of the passive construction corresponds to direct object of the predicate verb. e.g.: The window in a room opposite was being opened. (очилаётган эди).
e.g.: She is said to be a charming girl. (айтишларича...) He was seen talking to the Minister.(... гаплашаётганини кыришган)
e.g.: He was highly thought of in the village. (...унга бино =ыйишарди) The doctor has been sent for (...одам юборилди). You have been a good deal talked about (...кып гапирилди). Sometimes the subject of such construction may denote the place of the action (i.e. adverbial modifier of place). e.g.:The bed was not slept in. - Кроватда щали ётилмаган эди. The room had already been lived in. - Хонада алла=ачон яшалаётган эди. The chairs had once been sat in. - Стулларда бир ва=тлар ытирилган экан. As to the voice system of the Uzbek language, it rather intricate as the Uzbek verbs are more flective than their English counterparts. The Uzbek verbs distinguish five voices: ани=лик нисбати (active voice), ызлик нисбати (reflexive voice), орттирма нисбат (causative voice), биргалик нисбати (reciprocal voice) and мажщул нисбат (passive voice). As has been mentioned above Uzbek ани=лик нисбати fully corresponds to the English active voice, i.e. it is formed from the pure stem of the finite verb. e.g.: Мен буни инкор =иламан. - I deny that. Uzbek ызлик нисбати is formed by adding the suffixes -ин to the stem of the mainly transitive verbs after that they become intransitive ones.
In these examples marked (*) members of the opposition are used in the ызлик нисбати which corresponds to the English reflexive voice, where the subject of the action is at the same time is an object acted upon. e.g.; -Эрта тонгда туриб яхшилаб ювиндим, хафсала билан артиндим, сынгра эринмай =ириндим, чунки ишга жойлашиш учун бугун мущим сущбатдан ытишим керак эди. - I got up early morning and washed myself (had a good shower), dried myself and then I shaved myself properly as I had a very important job interview today. The Uzbek орттирма нисбат (causative voice) is formed by adding suffixes:
In English causation can be expressed syntactically i.e. by means of the following verbs in combination with other parts of speech: to make, to cause, to force, to have, to get, etc. e.g.: That makes me tremble for her happiness. (=алтира-т-ади). She made me put on my coat. (...кий-дирди). I was made to put on my coat. (...кий-дир-ишди). I had my room whitewashed (...о=ла-ттир-дим) I got him rewrite my paper (...ёз-дир-дим). Uzbek биргалик нисбати (reciprocal voice) is formed by adding the suffixes -ш, -иш to the stem of the verb and it denotes that the action expressed by the predicate verb is performed by more than one person. In English such a notion is expressed syntactically, i.e. by means of the reciprocal pronouns ‘each other, one another in combination with the predicate verb. e.g.: I knew that my two aunts bitterly disliked each other. (...бир бирини ылгудай ёмон кыришарди) They were always kissing one another a lot in public. (...роса ыпишишарди) Uzbek мажщул нисбати corresponds to the English passive voice and denotes that subject of the action is acted upon. The main difference between them is in the fact that in Uzbek sometimes intransitive verbs denoting a human action can be used in the passive voice, such as бор-мо=, юр-мо=, ет-мо= etc. e.g.: Бу ердан вокзалгача ярим соат чамаси пиёда юр-ил-ади, кейин муюлишда автобусга чи=-ил-ади. Расми ёмон хотиндан =оч-ил-ади, замона шум былса, яхши хотиндан щам =очар экан, киши. (А.+ащщор)
E.g.: She is as clever as her mother. - У (=из) онаси каби а=лли(дир). John is not as tall as his brother. - Жон акасичалик новча эмас(дир). It should be kept in mind, that the subject form of the English pronoun is always used after th conjaction “as”. E.g.: Mary is as tall as I. You look as old as she. Examples of equal comparisons: My car is as expensive as yours. (adj.) Your car runs as fast as mine. (adv.) Mary speaks Spanish as well as her sister. (adv.) My work is as hard as yours. (adj.) The same idea can be expressed in English in the following way:
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