Conceptual review and meta-analysis of school effectiveness

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Factors
Components
Achievement, orientation, high expectations	clear focus on the mastering of basic subjects high expectations (school level) high expectations (teacher level) records on pupils’ achievement
Educational leadership	general leadership skills school leader as information provider orchestrator or participative decision making school leader as coordinator meta-controller of classroom processes time educational/administrative leadership counselor and quality controller of classroom teachers initiator and facilitator of staff professionalization
Consensus and cohesion among staff	types and frequency of meetings and consultations contents of cooperation satisfaction about cooperation importance attributed to cooperation indicators of successful cooperation
Curriculum quality/ opportunity to learn	the way curricular priorities are set choice of methods and text books application of methods and text books opportunity to learn satisfaction with the curriculum
School climate	orderly atmosphere the importance given to an orderly climate rules and regulations punishment and rewarding absenteeism and drop out good conduct and behaviour of pupils satisfaction with orderly school climate
	climate in terms of effectiveness orientation and good internal relationships priorities in an effectiveness-enhancing school climate perceptions on effectiveness-enhancing conditions relationships between pupils relationships between teacher and pupils relationships between staff relationships: the role of the head teacher engagement of pupils appraisal of roles and tasks job appraisal in terms of facilities, conditions of labour, task load and general satisfaction facilities and building
Evaluative potential	evaluation emphasis monitoring pupils’ progress use of pupil monitoring systems school process evaluation use of evaluation results keeping records on pupils’ performance satisfaction with evaluation activities
Parental involvement	emphasis on parental involvement in school policy contacts with parents satisfaction with parental involvement
Classroom climate	relationships within the classroom order work attitude satisfaction
Effective learning time	importance of effective learning time monitoring of absenteeism time at school time at classroom level classroom management homework

re 5) Studies on instructional effectiveness

As the most relative strands of research on teaching and classroom processes for the topic at hand are studies on characteristics of effective teachers, and studies that go under the label of “process-product studies”. This latter category of studies was also inspired by Carroll’s (1963) model of teaching and learning and off-springs of this model, such as the models of mastery learning (Bloom, 1976) and “direct teaching” (e.g. Doyle, 1985).

The research results have been reviewed by, among others, Stallings (1985), Brophy and Good (1986), and Creemers (1994) and quantitatively synthesized in meta-analyses by Walberg (1984), Fraser et al. (1987) and Wang, Haertel and Walberg (1993). These latter authors incidentally have also included variables outside the classroom situation, like the student’s relationships with peers, and the home environment (e.g. television viewing) in their analyses which they label under the heading of “educational productivity”.

In the sixties and seventies the effectiveness of certain personal characteristics of teachers was particularly studied. Medley & Mitzel, 1963; Rosenshine & Furst, 1973 and Gage, 1965 are among those who reviewed the research findings. From these it emerged that there was hardly any consistency found between personal characteristics of the teacher like warmheartedness or inflexibleness on the one hand, and pupil achievement on the other. When studying teaching styles (Davies, 1972), the behavioural repertoire of teachers was generally looked at more than the deeply-rooted aspects of their personality. Within the framework of “research on teaching” there followed a period in which much attention was given to observing teacher behaviour during lessons. The results of these observations, however, in as far as they were related to pupil achievement, seldom revealed a link with pupil performance (see Lortie, 1973, for instance). In a following phase more explicit attention was given to the relation between observed teacher behaviour and pupil achievement. This research is identified in the literature as “process-product studies”. Variables which emerged “strongly” in the various studies were the following (Weeda, 1986, p. 68):

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