Contents Introduction Chapter I modernism in XX century and Aldous Huxley

Brave New World is a novel written in 1931 by Aldous Huxley and published in 1932. Set in London of AD 2540 (632 A.F.—"After Ford"—in the book), the novel anticipates developments in reproductive technology, sleep-learning, psychological manipulation, and classical conditioning that combine profoundly to change society. Huxley answered this book with a reassessment in an essay, Brave New World Revisited (1958), and with Island (1962), his final novel.
In 1999, the Modern Library ranked Brave New World fifth on its list of the 100 best English-language novels of the 20th century. In 2003, Robert Mc Crum writing for The Observer included Brave New World chronologically at number 53 in "the top 100 greatest novels of all time", and the novel was listed at number 87 on the BBC's survey The Big Read.
Huxley wrote Brave New World in 1931 while he was living in England. By this time, Huxley had already established himself as a writer and social satirist. He was a contributor toVanity Fair and Vogue magazines, and had published a collection of his poetry (The Burning Wheel, 1916) and four successful satirical novels: Crome Yellow (1921), Antic Hay(1923), Those Barren Leaves (1925), and Point Counter Point (1928). Brave New World was Huxley's fifth novel and first dystopian work.
Huxley said that Brave New World was inspired by the utopian novels of H. G. Wells, including A Modern Utopia (1905) and Men Like Gods (1923). Wells' hopeful vision of the future's possibilities gave Huxley the idea to begin writing a parody of the novel, which became Brave New World. He wrote in a letter to Mrs. Arthur Goldsmith, an American acquaintance, that he had "been having a little fun pulling the leg of H. G. Wells," but then he "got caught up in the excitement of [his] own ideas." Unlike the most popular optimist utopian novels of the time, Huxley sought to provide a frightening vision of the future. Huxley referred to Brave New World as a "negative utopia", somewhat influenced by Wells' own The Sleeper Awakes (dealing with subjects like corporate tyranny and behavioural conditioning) and the works of D. H. Lawrence⁸.
George Orwell believed that Brave New World must have been partly derived from the novel We by Yevgeny Zamyatin. However, in a 1962 letter, Huxley says that he wrote Brave New World long before he had heard of We. According to We translator Natasha Randall, Orwell believed that Huxley was lying. The scientific futurism in Brave New World is believed to be cribbed from Daedalus by J. B. S. Haldane
The events of the depression in Britain in 1931, with its mass unemployment and the abandonment of the gold standard currency, persuaded Huxley to assert that stability was the "primal and ultimate need" if civilisation was to survive the present crisis. The Brave New World character Mustapha Mond, Resident World Controller of Western Europe, is named after Sir Alfred Mond whose vast technologically advanced plant near Billingham, north east England, Huxley visited shortly before writing the novel, which made a great impression on him.
Although the novel is set in the future it deals with contemporary issues of the early 20th century. The Industrial Revolution had transformed the world. Mass production had made cars, telephones, and radios relatively cheap and widely available throughout the developed world. The political, cultural, economic and social upheavals of the Russian Revolution of 1917 and the First World War(1914–1918) were resonating throughout the world as a whole and the individual lives of most people. Accordingly, many of the novel's characters are named after widely recognised, influential and in many cases contemporary people.
Huxley used the setting and characters from his science fiction novel to express widely held opinions, particularly the fear of losing individual identity in the fast-paced world of the future. An early trip to the United States gave Brave New World much of its character. Not only was Huxley outraged by the culture of youth, commercial cheeriness, sexual promiscuity and the inward-looking nature of many Americans,^[14] he had also found the book My Life and Work by Henry Ford on the boat to America, the principles of which he saw applied in everything he encountered after leaving San Francisco.^[15] There was a fear of Americanization in Europe. Thus seeing America firsthand, and from reading the ideas and plans of one of its foremost citizens, Huxley was spurred to write Brave New World with America in mind. The "feelies" are his response to the "talkie" motion pictures, and the sex-hormone chewing gum is a parody of the ubiquitous chewing gum, which was something of a symbol of America at that time.
The novel opens in London in A.F. 632 (AD 2540 in the Gregorian calendar). The vast majority of the population is unified under the World State, an eternally peaceful, stable global society where the population is permanently limited to no more than two billion people, meaning goods and resources are plentiful and everyone is happy. Natural reproduction has been done away with and children are created, 'decanted', and raised in 'hatcheries and conditioning centres'. From birth, people are genetically designed to fit into one of five castes, which are further split into 'Plus' and 'Minus' members and designed to fulfill predetermined positions within the social and economic strata of the World State. Fetuses chosen to become members of the highest castes, 'Alpha' and 'Beta', are allowed to develop naturally and are given stimulants while maturing to term in 'decanting bottles'. Fetuses chosen to become members of the lower castes of 'Gamma', 'Delta' or 'Epsilon' are subjected to in situ chemical interference to cause arrested development in intelligence and physical growth. Each Alpha or Beta is the product of one unique fertilised egg developing into one unique fetus. Members of lower castes are not unique but are instead created using 'Bokanovsky's Process' which enables a single egg to spawn up to 96 children and one ovary to produce thousands of children.
To further increase the birthrate of Gammas, Deltas and Epsilons, 'Podsnap's Technique' causes all the eggs in the ovary to mature simultaneously, allowing the hatchery to get full use of the ovary in two years' time. The majority of people in the World State come from these castes. The production of such specialised children bolsters the efficiency and harmony of society, since these people are deliberately limited in their cognitive and physical abilities. It also restricts the scope of their ambitions and the complexity of their desires, thus rendering them easier to control. All children are educated via the hypnopaedic process, which provides each child with caste-appropriate subconscious messages to mould the child's lifelong self-image and social outlook to that chosen by the leaders and their predetermined plans for producing future adult generations, as well as stopping the lower caste citizens from wanting to be more than they were grown to be.
To maintain the World State's Command Economy for the indefinite future, all citizens are conditioned from birth to value consumption with such platitudes as "ending is better than mending," "more stitches less riches", i.e., buy a new item instead of fixing the old one, because constant consumption and near-universal employment to meet society's material demands is the bedrock of economic and social stability for the World State. Beyond providing social engagement and distraction in the material realm of work or play, the need for transcendence, solitude and spiritual communion is addressed with the ubiquitous availability and universally endorsed consumption of the drug soma: an allusion to a ritualistic drink of the same name consumed by ancient Indo-Aryans. In the book, soma is a hallucinogen that takes users on enjoyable, hangover-free 'holidays'. It was developed by the World State to provide these inner-directed personal experiences within a socially managed context of State-run 'religious' organisations, or social clubs. As a self-medicating comfort mechanism in the face of stress or discomfort, the hypnopaedically inculcated affinity for the State-produced drug thereby eliminates the need for religion or other personal allegiances outside or beyond the World State; the book describes it as having 'all the advantages of Christianity and alcohol, none of their defects'.
Spending time alone is considered an outrageous waste of time and money, and wanting to be an individual is horrifying. Conditioning trains people to consume and never to enjoy being alone, so by spending an afternoon not playing 'Obstacle Golf', or not in bed with a friend, one is forfeiting acceptance.
In the World State, people typically die at age 60 having maintained good health and youthfulness their whole life. Death is not feared; anyone reflecting upon it is reassured by the knowledge that everyone is happy, and that society goes on. Since no one has family, they have no strong ties to mourn.
The conditioning system eliminates the need for professional competitiveness. People are bred to do their jobs and to enjoy them so they never desire another. There is no competition within castes, since each caste member receives the same workload, the same food, housing, and soma rationing as every other member of that caste. There is no desire to change one's caste, largely because a person's sleep-conditioning reinforces each individual's place in the caste system. To grow closer with members of the same class, citizens participate in mock religious services called Solidarity Services, in which twelve people consume large quantities of soma and sing hymns. The ritual progresses through group hypnosis and climaxes in an orgy⁹.
In geographic areas nonconducive to easy living and consumption, securely contained groups of 'savages' are left to their own devices. These are similar to the reservations of land established for the Native American population during the colonisation of North America. These 'savages' are beholden of strange customs, including self-harm and religion, a mere curio in the outside world.
In its first chapters, the novel describes life in the World State as wonderful and introduces Lenina Crowne and Bernard Marx. Lenina, a hatchery worker, is socially accepted and comfortable with her place in society, while Bernard, a psychologist, is an outcast. Although an Alpha Plus, he is shorter in stature than the average of his caste — a quality shared by the lower castes, which gives him an inferiority complex. His work with sleep-teaching has led him to realise that what others believe to be their own deeply held beliefs are merely phrases repeated to children while they are asleep. Still, he recognises the necessity of such programming as the reason why his society meets the emotional needs of its citizens. Courting disaster, he is vocal about being different, once stating he dislikes soma, because he'd 'rather be himself'. Bernard's differences fuel rumours that he was accidentally administered alcohol while incubated, a method used to keep members of lower classes short.
Bernard's only friend is Helmholtz Watson, an Alpha Plus lecturer at the College of Emotional Engineering (Department of Writing). The friendship is based on their similar experiences as misfits, but unlike Bernard, Watson's sense of loneliness stems from being too gifted, intelligent, handsome, and physically strong. Helmholtz is drawn to Bernard as a confidant: he can talk to Bernard about his desire to write poetry.
Bernard is on holiday at a Savage Reservation with Lenina, located in New Mexico. They are treated to what at first appears to be a quaint native ceremony. The village folk are of a culture which resembles the contemporary Native American groups of the region, descendants of the Anasazi, including the Puebloan peoples of Acoma, Laguna, and Zuni, and the Ramah Navajo; they begin by singing, but the ritual quickly becomes a passion play where a village boy is whipped to unconsciousness.
Soon after, the couple encounters Linda, a woman who has been living in Malpais since she came on a trip and became separated from her group, among whom was a man to whom she refers as 'Tomakin', but who is revealed to be Bernard's boss, Thomas, the Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning. She became pregnant despite adhering to her 'Malthusian Drill' and there were no facilities for an abortion. Her shame at pregnancy was so great that she decided not to return to her old life, but to stay with the 'savages'. Linda gave birth to a son, John (later referred to as John the Savage), who is now a young man.
Conversations with Linda and John reveal that their life has been hard. For over 20 years, they have been treated as outsiders: the native men treated Linda like a sex object and the native women regularly beat and ostracised her because of her promiscuity, while John was mistreated and excluded for his mother's actions and the color of his skin. John was angered by Linda's lovers, and even attacked one in a jealous rage as a child. John's one joy was that his mother had taught him to read, although he only had two books: a scientific manual from his mother's job, which he called a 'beastly, beastly book', and a collection of Shakespeare's works (which have been banned in the World State for being subversive). Shakespeare gives John articulation to his feelings, and he is especially interested in Othello, Romeo and Juliet, and Hamlet. At the same time, John has been denied the religious rituals of the village, although he has watched them and has even had some religious experiences on his own in the desert.
Old, weathered and tired, Linda wants to return to her familiar world in London, as she misses living in the city and taking soma. John wants to see the 'brave new world' his mother has told him so much about. Bernard wants to take them back to block Thomas from his plan to reassign Bernard to Iceland as punishment for his asocial beliefs. Bernard arranges permission for Linda and John to leave the reservation.
John also seems to have an attraction to Lenina; while Bernard is away, getting the permission to move the savages, John finds her suitcase and ruffles through all of her clothes, taking in the smells. He then sees her 'sleeping' in a soma-induced comatose state and stares at her, thinking all he has to do to see her properly is undo one zip. He later tells himself off for being like this towards Lenina, and seems to be extremely shy around her.
Upon his return to London, Bernard is confronted by Thomas, the Director of Hatcheries and Conditioning, who denounces Bernard for his asocial behaviour, in front of an audience of higher-caste Centre workers. Bernard defends himself by presenting the Director with his long-lost lover, Linda, and unknown son, John, who falls to his knees and calls Thomas his father, which causes an uproar of laughter. The humiliated Director resigns in shame.
Spared from reassignment, Bernard makes John the toast of London. Pursued by the highest members of society, able to bed any woman he fancies, Bernard revels in attention he once scorned. However, the victory is short-lived. Decrepit and friendless, Linda goes on a permanent soma holiday while John refuses to attend Bernard's parties, appalled by what he perceives to be an empty society. Society drops Bernard as swiftly as it had taken him. Bernard turns to the person he had believed to be his one true friend, only to see Helmholtz fall into a quick, easy camaraderie with John. Bernard is left an outcast yet again as he watches the only two men with whom he ever connected find more of interest in each other than they ever did in him.
Encouraged by her colleague and friend Fanny, Lenina visits John and tries to seduce him. She disrobes, causing John to attack her for being an 'impudent strumpet'. Lenina locks herself in his bathroom, and while inside, terrified and dressing, John receives a telephone call from the hospital informing him that his mother is extremely unwell. He leaves, allowing Lenina a chance to escape.
John rushes over to see Linda and sits at her bedside, trying to get her out of her soma holiday so that he can talk to her. He is heartbroken when his mother succumbs to somaand dies. He is extremely annoyed by the young boys that enter the ward to be conditioned about death and irritate John to the point where he starts to use violence to send them away. John's grief bewilders and revolts the hospital workers, and their lack of reaction to Linda's death prompts John to try to force humanity from the workers by throwing their soma rations out of a window. The ensuing riot brings the police, who quell the riot by filling the room with vaporised soma. Bernard and Helmholtz arrive to help John, but only Helmholtz helps him, while Bernard stands to the side, torn between risking involvement by helping or escaping the scene.
Following the riot, Bernard, Helmholtz and John are brought to speak with Mustapha Mond, the Resident World Controller for Western Europe. Inspired by John's questions, Mond gives details about the history of the events that led to the present society and his reasoning for why things are better with a caste society and programs of social control. Bernard and Helmholtz are told they are to be exiled to islands. Bernard pleads for a second chance and accuses John and Helmholtz for their predicament. Reduced to grovelling, he is removed by guards. Mond proceeds to explain that exile is actually something of a reward, a chance to interact with other freethinking individuals. He reveals that he too once faced island banishment for conducting brilliant but controversial scientific research; instead of exile, he accepted a position on the Controllers' Council in exchange for abandoning his experiments. Helmholtz embraces the Falkland Islands as his destination, believing that their bad weather will inspire his writing, and leaves to check on Bernard. Alone, Mond and John engage in philosophical arguments concerning God and the morals behind the existing society. They end with John rejecting the illusionary happiness of Mond's world and accepting his 'unhappy' way of life, despite its 'inconveniences'. The next afternoon, Bernard and Helmholtz meet John before their exile. Bernard, now resigned to his fate but also reconciled with Helmholtz, apologises to John for his behaviour. John tells his friends that he asked Mond to exile him with them but was denied. Instead, he is told that the 'experiment' of him living in civilization will continue. John vows not to be a part of such an experiment and to leave the next day.
John moves to a hilltop 'air-lighthouse' (meant to warn and guide helicopters, not ships) southwest of London, near the village of Puttenham, where he intends to adopt an asceticlifestyle in order to purify himself of civilization and amend for his mistreatment of his mother. To his horror, he finds himself one day enjoying the process of making a bow. To atone, John brutally whips himself in the open. This self-flagellation is witnessed by bystanders, causing reporters, whom John attacks or chases away, to visit three days later looking for a story. That afternoon, in a lull between reporters, John catches himself fantasizing about Lenina, again causing him to flog himself. This time, the act is captured by a spying photographer who turns it into a film shown all over Western Europe. The day after the film's release, hundreds of sightseers, hoping to witness the curious behaviour themselves, arrive at John's lighthouse via helicopters; as the growing crowd chants 'We—want—the whip!', Henry and Lenina disembark from one of them. The sight of the woman whom he both adores and loathes is too much: as she attempts to speak to him, John attacks her with his whip. The crowd goes wild with excitement, and as a product of their conditioning, they turn on each other in a frenzy of beating and chanting that heightens into a mass orgy of soma and sex. Late the next morning, John wakes alone and suddenly recalls that he too participated in the debauchery. Onlookers and journalists arrive that evening but find that John has hanged himself in the lighthouse.
Upon publication, Rebecca West praised Brave New World as "The most accomplished novel Huxley has yet written", Joseph Needham lauded it as "Mr. Huxley's remarkable book", and Bertrand Russell also praised it, stating, "Mr. Aldous Huxley has shown his usual masterly skill in Brave New World"
However, Brave New World also received negative responses from other contemporary critics, although his work was later embraced.
In an article in the 4 May 1935 issue of the Illustrated London News, G. K. Chesterton explained that Huxley was revolting against the "Age of Utopias". Much of the discourse on man's future before 1914 was based on the thesis that humanity would solve all economic and social issues. In the decade following the war the discourse shifted to an examination of the causes of the catastrophe. The works of H. G. Wells and George Bernard Shaw on the promises of socialism and a World State were then viewed as the ideas of naive optimists.
After the Age of Utopias came what we may call the American Age, lasting as long as the Boom. Men like Ford or Mond seemed to many to have solved the social riddle and made capitalism the common good. But it was not native to us; it went with a buoyant, not to say blatant optimism, which is not our negligent or negative optimism. Much more than Victorian righteousness, or even Victorian self-righteousness, that optimism has driven people into pessimism. For the Slump brought even more disillusionment than the War. A new bitterness, and a new bewilderment, ran through all social life, and was reflected in all literature and art. It was contemptuous, not only of the old Capitalism, but of the old Socialism. Brave New World is more of a revolt against Utopia than against Victoria.