Definitions of politeness Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory ‘Face needs/wants’

Lecture 4
Politeness Theory and Politeness Strategies

1. 
   Definitions of politeness
   
2. 
   Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory
   
3. 
   ‘Face needs/wants’ – face threatening act vs. face saving act
   
4. 
   Negative face vs. positive face
   
5. 
   Politeness strategies
   

1. 
   Politeness
   

Behavior that is courteous and respectful of others is polite. Politeness is reflected in language and communication in forms of address, in using inoffensive language in conversational interactions, and in generally avoiding taboo language.

We can think of politeness in general terms as having to do with ideas like being tactful, modest and nice to other people.

Definitions of politeness abound but the core of most definitions refers to linguistic politeness as a ‘means of expressing consideration for others’ (e.g., Holmes, 1995: 4; Thomas, 1995: 150; Watts, 2003). Linguistic politeness is a matter of strategic interaction aimed at achieving goals such as avoiding conflict and maintaining harmonious relations with others (Kasper, 1990).

Politeness include being tactful, generous, modest, and sym­pathetic toward others.

2. 
   Brown and Levinson’s Politeness Theory
   

Brown and Levinson proposed an original face-saving model of politeness in 1978, and a revised model in 1987 known as Politeness Theory. Brown and Levinson considered their theory as cross-culturally valid.

According to Politeness Theory, people are motivated by their need to maintain their ‘face’ (in the sociological sense, developed by Goffman 1967): the need to be approved of by others, and to maintain a sense of self-worth.

In the theory of politeness, the most relevant concept is “face.” As a technical term, face means the public self-image of a per­son. It refers to that emotional and social sense of self that every­one has and expects everyone else to recognize. Politeness, in an interaction, can then be defined as the means employed to show awareness of another person’s face. In this sense, politeness can be accomplished in situations of social distance or closeness.

Showing awareness for another person’s face when that other seems socially distant is often described in terms of respect or deference. Showing the equivalent awareness when the other is socially close is often described in terms of friendliness, cama­raderie, or solidarity. The first type might be found in a student’s question to his teacher, shown as in [a.], and a second type in the friend’s question to the same individual, as in [b.]

a. Excuse me, Mr Buckingham, but can I talk to you for a minute?

b. Hey, Bucky, got a minute?

It follows from this type of approach that there will be different kinds of politeness associated (and marked linguistically) with the assumption of relative social distance or closeness. In most English-speaking contexts, the participants in an interaction often have to determine, as they speak, the relative social distance between them, and hence their ‘face wants’.

3. 
   ‘Face wants’ – face threatening act vs. face saving act.
   

Within their everyday social interac­tions,, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another indi­vidual’s expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face threatening act. Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This_is_

Within their everyday social interac­tions,, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected. If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another indi­vidual’s expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face threatening act. Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This_is_

Within their everyday social interac­tions, people generally behave as if their expectations concerning their public self-image, or their face wants, will be respected.

If a speaker says something that represents a threat to another indi­vidual’s expectations regarding self-image, it is described as a face threatening act.

Alternatively, given the possibility that some action might be interpreted as a threat to another’s face, the speaker can say something to lessen the possible threat. This is called a face saving act.

Example:

Imagine a late night scene, where a young neighbor is playing his music very loud and an older couple are trying to sleep. One of them, proposes a face threatening act and the other sug­gests a face saving act.

1. 
   I’m going to tell him to stop that awful noise right now!
   
2. 
   Perhaps you could just ask him if he is going to stop soon because it’s getting a bit late and people need to get to sleep.
   

Because it is generally expected that each person will attempt to respect the face wants of others, there are many different ways of performing face saving acts.

4. 
   Negative face vs. positive face
   

When we attempt to save another’s face, we can pay attention to their negative face wants or their positive face wants.

A person’s negative face is the need to be independent, to have freedom of action, and not to be imposed on by others. The word ‘negative’ here doesn’t mean ‘bad’, it’s just the opposite pole from ‘positive’.

A person’s positive face is the need to be accepted, valued, even liked and admired, by others, to be treated as a member of the same group, and to know that his or her wants are shared by others.

In simple terms, neg­ative face is the need to be independent and positive face is the need to be connected.
So, a face saving act which is oriented to the person’s negative face will tend to show deference, emphasize the importance of the other’s time or concerns, and even include an apology for the imposition or interruption. This is also called negative politeness.

A face saving act which is concerned with the person’s positive face will tend to show solidarity, emphasize that both speakers want the same thing, and that they have a common goal. This is also called positive politeness

5. 
   Politeness strategies
   

Politeness strategies are used to express concern for others and minimize threats to self-esteem or "face" in particular social contexts.

Brown and Levinson outline four main types of politeness strategies:

1. 
   Positive politeness
   
2. 
   Negative politeness,
   
3. 
   Bald on-record,
   
4. 
   Off-record (indirect)
   

Positive Politeness Strategies. Positive politeness strategies are oriented towards the hearer's positive face and intended to avoid giving offense by highlighting friendliness.  They are used as a way to make the hearer feel a sense of closeness and belonging.

Positive Politeness Strategies include using jokes, nicknames, honorifics, tag questions, special discourse markers (please), and shared dialect, jargon and slang.

Examples:

You look sad. Can I do anything?

Heh, mate, can you lend me a dollar?

Hey, buddy, I’d appreciate it if you’d let me use your pen.

If we help each other, I guess, we'll both sink or swim in this course.

If you wash the dishes, I'll vacuum the floor.

That's a nice haircut you got; where did you get it?

Negative Politeness Strategies. Negative political strategies are  oriented towards the hearer's negative face and intended to avoid giving offense by showing deference. They are used as a way to interact with the hearer in a non-imposing way. They include questioning (containing a modal verb), hedging, expressions of apology for the imposition, using nominalizations, passives, or statements of general rules, plural pronouns

Examples:

Would you know where Radisson Street is?

Perhaps, he might have taken it, maybe.

Could you lend me a pen?

I’m sorry to bother you, but can I ask you for a pen or something?

I know you’re busy, but might I ask you if—em—if you happen to have an extra pen.

It's not too much out of your way, just a couple of blocks.

I'm sorry; it's a lot to ask, but can you lend me a thousand dollars?

Formal politeness: I hope offense will not be taken. Visitors sign the ledger.

Spitting will not be tolerated.

We regret to inform you.
Bald on-record strategy. It does not aim to minimize the threat to the hearer's face, and is most often used in situations where the speaker has a close relationship with the listener, such as family or close friends, and when information needs to be shared quickly.

Examples: Watch out! Pass me the pliers. Don't forget to clean the kitchen! Your headlights are on! Come in. Leave it, I'll clean it up later. Eat!

Off-record (indirect) strategy. This politeness strategy makes use of indirect language and removes the speaker from the potential to be imposing. This strategy is concerned with pragmatics to convey the intended hidden (implied) meaning.

Examples: It's getting cold in here. The trash basket is full. “I’m so tired. A cup of coffee would help.”

Sources

1. Brown, P., S. Levinson. (1987). Politeness. Some Universals of Language Usage. Cambridge: CUP.

2. Grundy, P. (2000). Doing Pragmatics. London: Arnold.

3. Leech, G.N (1983) Principles of Pragmatics, Longman

6. Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford: OUP.