Donald knuth
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ster’s Dictionary of English Usage
. Always consider a word’s connotations (associated meanings) along with its denotations (explicit meanings); the wrong connotations can trip up your readers by suggesting unintended ideas. For example, the word “adequate” means enough for what is required, but it gives you the feeling that there’s not quite enough; its connotation is the exact opposite of its denotation. Strong writing does not require using synonyms, contrary to popular belief. Indeed, by repeating a word, you often strengthen the bond between two thoughts. Moreover, few words are exact synonyms, and often, using an exact synonym adds nothing to the discussion. Being precise means giving specific and concrete details. Without the details, readers stop and wonder needlessly. On the other hand, readers remember by means of the details. Being precise does not mean giving all the details, but giving the informative details. Giving the wrong details or giving the right ones at the wrong time makes the writing boring and hard to follow. Being specific does not mean eradicating general statements. General statements are important, particularly in summaries. However, 6 MIT Undergraduate Journal of Mathematics specific examples, illustrations, and analogies add meaning to the general statements. Being clear means using no wrong words. An ambiguous phrase or sentence will disrupt the continuity and diminish the authority of an entire section. A common mistake is to use overly complex prose. Don’t string adjectives together, especially if they are really nouns. Many high quality pure mathematics original research journal article sentences illustrate this problem. Keep your sentences simple and to the point. Avoid long subjects. A sentence in which a lot goes on between the noun and the verb is hard to read. But a sentence is easy to read when little goes on between the noun and the verb. Need to express a complex idea? Then use several short sentences. Readers are thus led to stop and reflect. However, you do need some longer sentences to keep your writing from sounding choppy and to provide variety and emphasis. A pronoun normally refers to the first preceding noun. However, sometimes it refers broadly to a preceding phrase, topic, or idea. This should be avoided. Make sure the reference is immediately clear, especially with “it,” “this,” and “which.” Consider repeating the antecedent or summarizing it. It is common to use a plural pronoun such as “their” to refer back to a singular, but indefinite, antecedent such as “reader.” This usage is still considered unacceptable in formal writing; reformulate your sentence if necessary. The pronouns “that” and “which” are not always interchangeable. Either may be used to introduce a restrictive clause, but use “that” ordinarily. Only “which” may be used to introduce a descriptive clause, and the clause must be set off with commas. In their classic guide to style [8, p. 47], Strunk and White recommend “which-hunting.” Punctuation is used to eliminate ambiguities in language, and to ease the flow of the text. Learn how to punctuate properly. Develop the habit of consulting a handbook like The Chicago Manual of Style. When punctuation is optional, use it if it promotes clarity, but strive for consistency through out the paper. Here are a few rules. Use periods only to end sentences. (A complete sentence within parentheses should begin with a capital letter and end with a punctuation mark, unless the sentence is part of another and would end with a period.) Avoid abbreviations that require periods; for example, write “MIT” instead of “M.I.T.” and use “that is” instead of “i.e.” Always use commas to separate three or more items in a list and to set off contrasted elements (they often begin with “but” or “not”). Most of the time, use a comma after an introductory word, phrase, or clause. Use colons to introduce lists, explanations, and displays, but not lemmas, theorems, and corollaries. Do not use colons in continuing statements: if a statement is stopped at the colon, then the introductory words should form a complete sentence. For example, don’t write, “Use colons to introduce: lists, explanations, and displays.” Use a semicolon to join two sentences to indicate that they are closely linked in content; however, if you insert a conjunction, not an adverb, then use a comma. Use a dash as a comma of extra strength—but use it sparingly—it carries a hint of emotion. Place closing quotation marks (”) after commas and periods; it is a matter of appearance, not logic. Enclose incidental material in parentheses; generally, footnotes and endnotes are discouraged in technical reports. Don’t use the apostrophe to form the plurals of one or more digits and letters used as nouns, except to avoid confusion. For example, write this: the early 1970s, many YMCAs, several PhD’s, the x’s and y’s. To inform, you must use language familiar to your readers. Define unfamiliar words, and familiar words used in unfamiliar ways. If the definition is short, then include it in Writing a Math Phase Two Paper 7 the same sentence, preceding it by “or” or setting it off by commas or parentheses. If the definition is complex or technical, then expand it in a sentence or two. Do not use words like “capability,” “utilize,” and “implement”; they offer no precision, clarity, or continuity and smack of pseudo-intellectualism. Beware of words like “interface”; they are precise in some contexts, yet imprecise and pretentious in others. Jargon is vocabulary particular to a certain group, and it consists of abbreviations and slang terms. Jargon is not inherently bad. Indeed, it is useful in internal memos and reports. However, jargon alienates external readers and may even mislead them. So beware. Clich´es are figurative expressions that have been overused and have taken on undesirable connotations. Most are imprecise and unclear. Avoid them, or be laughed at. In addition, avoid numerals because they slow down the reading. Write numbers out if they can be expressed in one or two words and are used as adjectives, unless they are accompanied by units, a percentage sign, or a monetary sign. For instance, write, “The equation has two roots,” and “One root is 2.” Don’t begin a sentence with a numeral or a symbol; reformulate the sentence if necessary. Be forthright: write in an unhesitating, straightforward, and friendly style, ridding your language of needless and bewildering formality. Be wary of awkward and inefficient passive constructions. Often the passive voice is used simply to avoid the first person. However, the pronoun “we” is now generally considered acceptable in contexts where it means the author and reader together, or less often, the author with the reader looking on. Still, “we” should not be used as a formal equivalent of “I,” and “I” should be used rarely, if at all. For instance, don’t write, “By solving the equation, it is found that the roots are real.” Instead write, “Solving the equation, we find the roots are real,” or “Solving the equation yields real roots.” It is acceptable, but less desirable, to write, “Solving the equation, one finds the roots are real”. The personal pronoun “one” is a sign of formality; save “one” for use as a number. Beware of dangling participles. It is wrong to write, “Solving the equation, the roots are real,” because “the roots” cannot solve the equation. Concise writing is vigorous; wordy writing is tedious. Conciseness comes from re- ducing sentences to their simplest forms. For instance, don’t write, “In order to find the solution of the equation, we can use one of two alternative methods.” Instead, write, “To solve the equation, we can use one of two methods,” thus eliminating empty words (“in order), reducing fat phrases (“to find the solution of”), and eliminating needless repetition (“alternative”). If it goes without saying, don’t say it! Concise writing is simple and efficient, thus beautiful. The flow of a paper is disturbed by weak transitions between sentences and para- graphs. To smooth out the flow, start a sentence where the preceding one left off. Use connective words and phrases. Avoid gaps in the logic, and give ample details. Don’t take needless jumps when deriving equations. Use parallel wording when discussing parallel concepts. Don’t raise questions implicitly, and leave them unanswered. Pay attention to the tense, voice, and mode of verbs; prefer the active present indicative. Some papers stagnate because they lack variety. The sentences begin the same way, run the same length, and are of the same type. The paragraphs have the same length and structure. Don’t worry about varying your sentences and paragraphs at first; wait until you polish your writing. Remember though, if you have to choose between fluidity and clarity, then you must choose clarity. The very structure of a sentence conveys meaning. Readers expect the stress to lie 8 MIT Undergraduate Journal of Mathematics at the beginning and end. They take a breath at the beginning, but will run out of breath before the end if the structure is too complex, for instance, if the subject is too far from the verb. Most people think and remember images, not abstractions, and images are clarified by illustrations. Illustrations also provide pauses, so complex ideas can soak in. More- over, illustrations can make a paper more palatable and less forbiding. However, the use of illustrations can be overdone; it must fit the audience and the subject. Illustrations cannot stand alone; they must be introduced in the text. Assign them titles, like Figure 5-1 or Table 5-1, for reference. Assign them captions that tell, in- dependently of the text, what they are and how they differ from one another, without being overly specific. In addition, clearly label the parts of your illustrations: label the axes of graphs with words, not symbols; identify any unusual symbols of your diagrams in the text. Don’t put too much information into one illustration, because papers with- out white space tire readers. For the same reason, use adequate borders. Smooth the transitions between your words and pictures. First, match the information in your text and illustrations. Second, place the illustrations closely after—never before—their first mention in the text. 4. Mathematics. Mathematical writing tends to involve many abstract symbols and formal arguments, and they present special problems. To help you understand these problems and deal with them in your writing, here are some comments and guidlines. Formulas are difficult to read because readers have to stop and work through the meaning of each term. Don’t merely list a sequence of formulas with no discernible goal, but give a running commentary. Define terms as they are introduced, state any assump- tions about their validity, and give examples to provide a feeling for them. Similarly, motivate and explain formal statements. Don’t simply call a statement “important,” “interesting,” or “remarkable,” but explain why it is so. Display an important formula by centering it on a line by itself, and give a reference number in the margin if you need to refer to it. Also display any formula that’s more than a quarter of a line long, that would be broken badly between lines, or that sticks out into the margin. Punctuate the display with commas, a period, and so forth as you would if you had not displayed it; see Section 5 for some examples. Keep in mind that the display is not a figure, but an integral part of the sentence, and therefore needs punctuation. Be clear about the status of every assertion; indicate whether it is a conjecture, the previous theorem, or the next corollary. If it is not a standard result and you omit its proof, then give a precise reference, in the text just before the statement. Tell whether the omitted proof is hard or easy to help readers decide whether to try to work it out for themselves. If the theorem has a name, use it: say “by the First Fundamental Theorem,” not just “by Theorem 5-1.” State a theorem before proving it. Keep the statement concise; put definitions and discussion elsewhere. Prefer a conceptual proof to a computational one; ideas are easier to communi- cate, understand, and remember. Omit the details of purely routine computations and arguments—ones with no unexpected tricks and no new ideas. Beware of any proof by contradiction; often there’s a simpler direct argument. Finally, when the proof has ended, say so outright. For instance, say, “The proof is now complete,” or use the Hal- mos symbol . In addition, surround the proof—and the statement as well—with some extra white space. (These matters are usually now handled by a L A TEX style file.) Writing a Math Phase Two Paper 9 Here are some more guidelines: 1. Separate symbols in different formulas with words. Bad: Consider S q , q = 1, . . . , n. Good: Consider S q for q = 1, . . . , n. 2. Don’t use such symbols as ∃, ∀, ∧, ⇒, ≈, =, > in text; replace them by words. They may, of course, be used in formulas placed in text. Bad: Let S be the set of all numbers of absolute value < 1. Good: Let S be the set of all numbers of absolute value less than 1. Good: Let S be the set of all numbers x such that |x| < 1. 3. Don’t start a sentence with a symbol. Bad: ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots if b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0. Good: The quadratic equation ax 2 +bx+c = 0 has real roots if b 2 −4ac ≥ 0. 4. Beware of using symbols to convey too much information all at once. Very bad: If ∆ = b 2 − 4ac ≥ 0, then the roots are real. Bad: If ∆ = b 2 − 4ac is nonnegative, then the roots are real. Good: Set ∆ = b 2 − 4ac. If ∆ ≥ 0, then the roots are real. 5. If you introduce a condition with “if,” then introduce the conclusion with “then.” Very bad: If ∆ ≥ 0, ax 2 + bx + c = 0 has real roots. Bad: If ∆ ≥ 0, the roots are real. Good: If ∆ ≥ 0, then the roots are real. 6. Don’t set off by commas any symbol or formula used in text in apposition to a noun.
Bad: If the discriminant, ∆, is nonnegative, then the roots are real. Good: If the discriminant ∆ is nonnegative, then the roots are real. 7. Use consistent notation. Don’t say “A j where 1 ≤ j ≤ n” one place and “A k where 1 ≤ k ≤ n” another place. 8. Keep the notation simple. For example, don’t write “x i is an element of X” if “x is an element of X” will do. 9. Precede a theorem, algorithm, and the like with a complete sentence. Bad: We now have the following Theorem 4-1. H (x) is continuous. Good: We can now prove the following result. Theorem 4-1. Let H(x) be the function defined by Formula (4-1). Then H(x) is continuous. 5. Example. As an example of mathematical writing, we discuss the two fundamental theorems of calculus. Our discussion is based on that in Apostol’s book [2, pp. 202–207]. The First Fundamental Theorem says that the process of differentiation reverses that of integration. This statement is remarkable because the two processes appear to be so different: differentiation gives us the slope of a curve; integration, the area under the curve. Here is a precise statement of the theorem. Theorem 5-1 (First Fundamental Theorem of Calculus). Let f be a function de-
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