Draft articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
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- Article 18. Coercion of another State A State which coerces another State to commit an act is internationally responsible for that act if: ( a
- Article 19. Effect of this chapter This chapter is without prejudice to the internation- al responsibility, under other provisions of these arti
- State responsibility 1
- Article 20. Consent
State responsibility 69 the latter may have the power to interfere in matters of administration internal to a dependent State, if that power is not exercised in the particular case. In the Brown case, for example, the arbitral tribunal held that the authority of Great Britain, as suzerain over the South African Repub- lic prior to the Boer War, “fell far short of what would be required to make her responsible for the wrong inflicted upon Brown”. 295 It went on to deny that Great Britain possessed power to interfere in matters of internal admin- istration and continued that there was no evidence “that Great Britain ever did undertake to interfere in this way”. 296 Accordingly, the relation of suzerainty “did not operate to render Great Britain liable for the acts complained of ”. 297 In the Heirs of the Duc de Guise case, the Franco-Italian Conciliation Commission held that Italy was responsible for a requisition carried out by Italy in Sicily at a time when it was under Allied occupation. Its decision was not based on the absence of Allied power to requisition the property, or to stop Italy from doing so. Rather, the major- ity pointed to the absence in fact of any “intermeddling on the part of the Commander of the Occupation forces or any Allied authority calling for the requisition decrees”. 298 The mere fact that a State may have power to exercise direction and control over another State in some field is not a sufficient basis for attributing to it any wrongful acts of the latter State in that field. 299 (7) In the formulation of article 17, the term “controls” refers to cases of domination over the commission of wrongful conduct and not simply the exercise of oversight, still less mere influence or concern. Similarly, the word “directs” does not encompass mere incitement or sugges- tion but rather connotes actual direction of an operative kind. Both direction and control must be exercised over the wrongful conduct in order for a dominant State to in- cur responsibility. The choice of the expression, common in English, “direction and control”, raised some problems in other languages, owing in particular to the ambiguity of the term “direction” which may imply, as is the case in French, complete power, whereas it does not have this implication in English. (8) Two further conditions attach to responsibility under article 17. First, the dominant State is only responsible if it has knowledge of the circumstances making the conduct of the dependent State wrongful. Secondly, it has to be shown that the completed act would have been wrongful had it been committed by the directing and controlling State itself. This condition is significant in the context of bilateral obligations, which are not opposable to the directing State. In cases of multilateral obligations and 295 Robert E. Brown (United States) v. Great Britain, UNRIAA, vol. VI (Sales No. 1955.V.3), p. 120, at p. 130 (1923). 296 Ibid., p. 131. 297 Ibid. 298 Heirs of the Duc de Guise (see footnote 115 above). See also, in another context, Drozd and Janousek v. France and Spain (footnote 135 above); see also Iribarne Pérez v. France, Eur. Court H.R., Series A, No. 325–C, pp. 62–63, paras. 29–31 (1995). 299 It may be that the fact of the dependence of one State upon anoth- er is relevant in terms of the burden of proof, since the mere existence of a formal State apparatus does not exclude the possibility that control was exercised in fact by an occupying Power. Cf. Restitution of House- hold Effects Belonging to Jews Deported from Hungary (Germany), Kammergericht of Berlin, ILR, vol. 44, p. 301, at pp. 340–342 (1965). especially of obligations to the international community, it is of much less significance. The essential principle is that a State should not be able to do through another what it could not do itself. (9) As to the responsibility of the directed and control- led State, the mere fact that it was directed to carry out an internationally wrongful act does not constitute an excuse under chapter V of Part One. If the conduct in question would involve a breach of its international obligations, it is incumbent upon it to decline to comply with the direction. The defence of “superior orders” does not exist for States in international law. This is not to say that the wrongful- ness of the directed and controlled State’s conduct may not be precluded under chapter V, but this will only be so if it can show the existence of a circumstance precluding wrongfulness, e.g. force majeure. In such a case it is to the directing State alone that the injured State must look. But as between States, genuine cases of force majeure or coercion are exceptional. Conversely, it is no excuse for the directing State to show that the directed State was a willing or even enthusiastic participant in the internation- ally wrongful conduct, if in truth the conditions laid down in article 17 are met. Article 18. Coercion of another State A State which coerces another State to commit an act is internationally responsible for that act if: (a) the act would, but for the coercion, be an inter- nationally wrongful act of the coerced State; and (b) the coercing State does so with knowledge of the circumstances of the act. Commentary (1) The third case of derived responsibility dealt with by chapter IV is that of coercion of one State by another. Article 18 is concerned with the specific problem of coer- cion deliberately exercised in order to procure the breach of one State’s obligation to a third State. In such cases the responsibility of the coercing State with respect to the third State derives not from its act of coercion, but rather from the wrongful conduct resulting from the action of the coerced State. Responsibility for the coercion itself is that of the coercing State vis-à-vis the coerced State, whereas responsibility under article 18 is the responsibil- ity of the coercing State vis-à-vis a victim of the coerced act, in particular a third State which is injured as a result. (2) Coercion for the purpose of article 18 has the same essential character as force majeure under article 23. Nothing less than conduct which forces the will of the coerced State will suffice, giving it no effective choice but to comply with the wishes of the coercing State. It is not sufficient that compliance with the obligation is made more difficult or onerous, or that the acting State is assisted or directed in its conduct: such questions are covered by the preceding articles. Moreover, the coerc- ing State must coerce the very act which is internationally wrongful. It is not enough that the consequences of the 0 Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session coerced act merely make it more difficult for the coerced State to comply with the obligation. (3) Though coercion for the purpose of article 18 is narrowly defined, it is not limited to unlawful coercion. 300 As a practical matter, most cases of coercion meeting the requirements of the article will be unlawful, e.g. because they involve a threat or use of force contrary to the Char- ter of the United Nations, or because they involve inter- vention, i.e. coercive interference, in the affairs of another State. Such is also the case with countermeasures. They may have a coercive character, but as is made clear in article 49, their function is to induce a wrongdoing State to comply with obligations of cessation and reparation to- wards the State taking the countermeasures, not to coerce that State to violate obligations to third States. 301 How- ever, coercion could possibly take other forms, e.g. seri- ous economic pressure, provided that it is such as to de- prive the coerced State of any possibility of conforming with the obligation breached. (4) The equation of coercion with force majeure means that in most cases where article 18 is applicable, the re- sponsibility of the coerced State will be precluded vis-à- vis the injured third State. This is reflected in the phrase “but for the coercion” in subparagraph (a) of article 18. Coercion amounting to force majeure may be the reason why the wrongfulness of an act is precluded vis-à-vis the coerced State. Therefore, the act is not described as an internationally wrongful act in the opening clause of the article, as is done in articles 16 and 17, where no compa- rable circumstance would preclude the wrongfulness of the act of the assisted or controlled State. But there is no reason why the wrongfulness of that act should be pre- cluded vis-à-vis the coercing State. On the contrary, if the coercing State cannot be held responsible for the act in question, the injured State may have no redress at all. (5) It is a further requirement for responsibility under article 18 that the coercing State must be aware of the circumstances which would, but for the coercion, have entailed the wrongfulness of the coerced State’s conduct. The reference to “circumstances” in subparagraph (b) is understood as reference to the factual situation rather than to the coercing State’s judgement of the legality of the act. This point is clarified by the phrase “circumstances of the act”. Hence, while ignorance of the law is no excuse, ig- norance of the facts is material in determining the respon- sibility of the coercing State. (6) A State which sets out to procure by coercion a breach of another State’s obligations to a third State will be held responsible to the third State for the conse- quences, regardless of whether the coercing State is also bound by the obligation in question. Otherwise, the in- jured State would potentially be deprived of any redress, because the acting State may be able to rely on force ma- jeure as a circumstance precluding wrongfulness. Article 18 thus differs from articles 16 and 17 in that it does not allow for an exemption from responsibility for the act of 300 P. Reuter, Introduction to the Law of Treaties, 2nd rev. ed. (London, Kegan Paul International, 1995), paras. 271–274. 01 See article 49, para. 2, and commentary. the coerced State in circumstances where the coercing State is not itself bound by the obligation in question. (7) State practice lends support to the principle that a State bears responsibility for the internationally wrongful conduct of another State which it coerces. In the Romano- Americana case, the claim of the United States Govern- ment in respect of the destruction of certain oil storage and other facilities owned by a United States company on the orders of the Government of Romania during the First World War was originally addressed to the British Govern- ment. At the time the facilities were destroyed, Romania was at war with Germany, which was preparing to invade the country, and the United States claimed that the Roma- nian authorities had been “compelled” by Great Britain to take the measures in question. In support of its claim, the United States Government argued that the circumstances of the case revealed “a situation where a strong belligerent for a purpose primarily its own arising from its defensive requirements at sea, compelled a weaker Ally to acquiesce in an operation which it carried out on the territory of that Ally”. 302 The British Government denied responsibility, asserting that its influence over the conduct of the Roma- nian authorities “did not in any way go beyond the limits of persuasion and good counsel as between governments associated in a common cause”. 303 The point of disagree- ment between the Governments of the United States and of Great Britain was not as to the responsibility of a State for the conduct of another State which it has coerced, but rather the existence of “compulsion” in the particular circumstances of the case. 304 Article 19. Effect of this chapter This chapter is without prejudice to the internation- al responsibility, under other provisions of these arti- cles, of the State which commits the act in question, or of any other State. Commentary (1) Article 19 serves three purposes. First, it preserves the responsibility of the State which has committed the internationally wrongful act, albeit with the aid or assist- ance, under the direction and control or subject to the co- ercion of another State. It recognizes that the attribution of international responsibility to an assisting, directing or coercing State does not preclude the responsibility of the assisted, directed or coerced State. (2) Secondly, the article makes clear that the provisions of chapter IV are without prejudice to any other basis for establishing the responsibility of the assisting, directing or coercing State under any rule of international law de- fining particular conduct as wrongful. The phrase “under 302 Note from the United States Embassy in London, dated 16 Febru- ary 1925, in Hackworth, op. cit. (footnote 142 above), p. 702. 303 Note from the British Foreign Office dated 5 July 1928, ibid., p. 704. 304 For a different example involving the coercion of a breach of con- tract in circumstances amounting to a denial of justice, see C. L. Bouvé, “Russia’s liability in tort for Persia’s breach of contract”, AJIL, vol. 6, No. 2 (April 1912), p. 389. State responsibility 1 other provisions of these articles” is a reference, inter alia, to article 23 (Force majeure), which might affect the question of responsibility. The phrase also draws attention to the fact that other provisions of the draft articles may be relevant to the State committing the act in question, and that chapter IV in no way precludes the issue of its responsibility in that regard. (3) Thirdly, article 19 preserves the responsibility “of any other State” to whom the internationally wrongful conduct might also be attributable under other provisions of the articles. (4) Thus, article 19 is intended to avoid any contrary in- ference in respect of responsibility which may arise from primary rules, precluding certain forms of assistance, or from acts otherwise attributable to any State under chap- ter II. The article covers both the implicated and the acting State. It makes it clear that chapter IV is concerned only with situations in which the act which lies at the origin of the wrong is an act committed by one State and not by the other. If both States commit the act, then that situation would fall within the realm of co-perpetrators, dealt with in chapter II. C hapter V CIRCUMSTANCES PRECLUDING WRONGFULNESS Commentary (1) Chapter V sets out six circumstances precluding the wrongfulness of conduct that would otherwise not be in conformity with the international obligations of the State concerned. The existence in a given case of a circumstance precluding wrongfulness in accordance with this chapter provides a shield against an otherwise well-founded claim for the breach of an international obligation. The six cir- cumstances are: consent (art. 20), self-defence (art. 21), countermeasures (art. 22), force majeure (art. 23), dis- tress (art. 24) and necessity (art. 25). Article 26 makes it clear that none of these circumstances can be relied on if to do so would conflict with a peremptory norm of gen- eral international law. Article 27 deals with certain conse- quences of the invocation of one of these circumstances. (2) Consistent with the approach of the present arti- cles, the circumstances precluding wrongfulness set out in chapter V are of general application. Unless otherwise provided, 305 they apply to any internationally wrongful act whether it involves the breach by a State of an obliga- tion arising under a rule of general international law, a treaty, a unilateral act or from any other source. They do not annul or terminate the obligation; rather they provide a justification or excuse for non-performance while the circumstance in question subsists. This was emphasized by ICJ in the Gabˇcíkovo-Nagymaros Project case. Hunga- ry sought to argue that the wrongfulness of its conduct in discontinuing work on the Project in breach of its obliga- 305 For example, by a treaty to the contrary, which would constitute a lex specialis under article 55. tions under the Treaty on the Construction and Operation of the Gabˇcíkovo-Nagymaros Barrage System was pre- cluded by necessity. In dealing with the Hungarian plea, the Court said: The state of necessity claimed by Hungary—supposing it to have been established—thus could not permit of the conclusion that ... it had acted in accordance with its obligations under the 1977 Treaty or that those obligations had ceased to be binding upon it. It would only permit the affirmation that, under the circumstances, Hungary would not incur international responsibility by acting as it did. 06 Thus a distinction must be drawn between the effect of circumstances precluding wrongfulness and the termina- tion of the obligation itself. The circumstances in chap- ter V operate as a shield rather than a sword. As Fitzmau- rice noted, where one of the circumstances precluding wrongfulness applies, “the non-performance is not only justified, but ‘looks towards’ a resumption of performance so soon as the factors causing and justifying the non-per- formance are no longer present”. 307 (3) This distinction emerges clearly from the decisions of international tribunals. In the “Rainbow Warrior” ar- bitration, the tribunal held that both the law of treaties and the law of State responsibility had to be applied, the former to determine whether the treaty was still in force, the latter to determine what the consequences were of any breach of the treaty while it was in force, including the question whether the wrongfulness of the conduct in question was precluded. 308 In the Gabˇcíkovo-Nagymaros Project case, the Court noted that: [E]ven if a state of necessity is found to exist, it is not a ground for the termination of a treaty. It may only be invoked to exonerate from its responsibility a State which has failed to implement a treaty. Even if found justified, it does not terminate a Treaty; the Treaty may be inef- fective as long as the condition of necessity continues to exist; it may in fact be dormant, but—unless the parties by mutual agreement terminate the treaty—it continues to exist. As soon as the state of necessity ceases to exist, the duty to comply with treaty obligations revives. 09 (4) While the same facts may amount, for example, to force majeure under article 23 and to a supervening im- possibility of performance under article 61 of the 1969 Vienna Convention, the two are distinct. Force majeure justifies non-performance of the obligation for so long as the circumstance exists; supervening impossibility justi- fies the termination of the treaty or its suspension in ac- cordance with the conditions laid down in article 61. The former operates in respect of the particular obligation, the latter with respect to the treaty which is the source of that obligation. Just as the scope of application of the two doc- trines is different, so is their mode of application. Force majeure excuses non-performance for the time being, but a treaty is not automatically terminated by supervening impossibility: at least one of the parties must decide to terminate it. (5) The concept of circumstances precluding wrong- fulness may be traced to the work of the Preparatory 306 Gabˇcíkovo-Nagymaros Project (see footnote 27 above), p. 39, para. 48. 307 Yearbook … 1959, vol. II, p. 41, document A/CN.4/120. 308 “Rainbow Warrior” (see footnote 46 above), pp. 251–252, para. 75. 309 Gabˇcíkovo-Nagymaros Project (see footnote 27 above), p. 63, para. 101; see also page 38, para. 47. 2 Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session Committee of the 1930 Hague Conference. Among its Bases of discussion, 310 it listed two “[c]ircumstances un- der which States can decline their responsibility”, self-de- fence and reprisals. 311 It considered that the extent of a State’s responsibility in the context of diplomatic protec- tion could also be affected by the “provocative attitude” adopted by the injured person (Basis of discussion No. 19) and that a State could not be held responsible for dam- age caused by its armed forces “in the suppression of an insurrection, riot or other disturbance” (Basis of discus- sion No. 21). However, these issues were not taken to any conclusion. (6) The category of circumstances precluding wrongful- ness was developed by ILC in its work on international re- sponsibility for injuries to aliens 312 and the performance of treaties. 313 In the event, the subject of excuses for the non-performance of treaties was not included within the scope of the 1969 Vienna Convention. 314 It is a matter for the law on State responsibility. (7) Circumstances precluding wrongfulness are to be distinguished from other arguments which may have the effect of allowing a State to avoid responsibility. They have nothing to do with questions of the jurisdiction of a court or tribunal over a dispute or the admissibility of a claim. They are to be distinguished from the constituent requirements of the obligation, i.e. those elements which have to exist for the issue of wrongfulness to arise in the first place and which are in principle specified by the ob- ligation itself. In this sense the circumstances precluding wrongfulness operate like defences or excuses in internal legal systems, and the circumstances identified in chap- ter V are recognized by many legal systems, often under the same designation. 315 On the other hand, there is no common approach to these circumstances in internal law, and the conditions and limitations in chapter V have been developed independently. (8) Just as the articles do not deal with questions of the jurisdiction of courts or tribunals, so they do not deal with issues of evidence or the burden of proof. In a bilateral dispute over State responsibility, the onus of establish- ing responsibility lies in principle on the claimant State. Where conduct in conflict with an international obligation is attributable to a State and that State seeks to avoid its responsibility by relying on a circumstance under chapter V, however, the position changes and the onus lies on that State to justify or excuse its conduct. Indeed, it is often the case that only that State is fully aware of the facts which might excuse its non-performance. 310 Yearbook ... 1956, vol. II, pp. 219–225, document A/CN.4/96. 311 Ibid., pp. 224–225. Issues raised by the Calvo clause and the exhaustion of local remedies were dealt with under the same heading. 312 Yearbook ... 1958, vol. II, p. 72. For the discussion of the circumstances by Special Rapporteur García Amador, see his first re- port on State responsibility, Yearbook ... 1956, vol. II, pp. 203–209, document A/CN.4/96, and his third report on State responsibility, Yearbook ... 1958, vol. II, pp. 50–55, document A/CN.4/111. 313 See the fourth report on the law of treaties of Special Rappor- teur Fitzmaurice (footnote 307 above), pp. 44–47, and his comments, ibid., pp. 63–74. 314 See article 73 of the Convention. 315 See the comparative review by C. von Bar, The Common Euro- pean Law of Torts (Oxford University Press, 2000), vol. 2, pp. 499– 592. (9) Chapter V sets out the circumstances precluding wrongfulness presently recognized under general inter- national law. 316 Certain other candidates have been ex- cluded. For example, the exception of non-performance (exceptio inadimpleti contractus) is best seen as a specific feature of certain mutual or synallagmatic obligations and not a circumstance precluding wrongfulness. 317 The prin- ciple that a State may not benefit from its own wrongful act is capable of generating consequences in the field of State responsibility but it is rather a general principle than a specific circumstance precluding wrongfulness. 318 The so-called “clean hands” doctrine has been invoked princi- pally in the context of the admissibility of claims before international courts and tribunals, though rarely applied. It also does not need to be included here. 319 Article 20. Consent Download 5.05 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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