Draft articles on Responsibility of States for Internationally Wrongful Acts
The conduct of a person or entity which is not an
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- Article 6. Conduct of organs placed at the disposal of a State by another State The conduct of an organ placed at the disposal of
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- Article 7. Excess of authority or contravention of instructions The conduct of an organ of a State or of a person
- State under international law if the organ, person or entity acts in that capacity, even if it exceeds its author- ity or contravenes instructions.
- State responsibility
- Article 8. Conduct directed or controlled by a State The conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a State under international law
- State responsibility 9
The conduct of a person or entity which is not an organ of the State under article but which is empow- ered by the law of that State to exercise elements of the governmental authority shall be considered an act of the State under international law, provided the per- son or entity is acting in that capacity in the particular instance. Commentary (1) Article 5 deals with the attribution to the State of conduct of bodies which are not State organs in the sense of article 4, but which are nonetheless authorized to exercise governmental authority. The article is intended to take account of the increasingly common phenomenon of parastatal entities, which exercise elements of gov- ernmental authority in place of State organs, as well as situations where former State corporations have been pri- vatized but retain certain public or regulatory functions. 1 Mallén (see footnote 117 above), at p. 175. 1 UNRIAA, vol. V (Sales No. 1952.V.3), p. 516, at p. 531 (1929). See also the Bensley case in Moore, History and Digest, vol. III, p. 3018 (1850) (“a wanton trespass … under no color of official proceedings, and without any connection with his official duties”); and the Castelain case ibid., p. 2999 (1880). See further article 7 and commentary. 16 See paragraph (7) of the commentary to article 7. State responsibility 3 (2) The generic term “entity” reflects the wide variety of bodies which, though not organs, may be empowered by the law of a State to exercise elements of governmental authority. They may include public corporations, semi- public entities, public agencies of various kinds and even, in special cases, private companies, provided that in each case the entity is empowered by the law of the State to exercise functions of a public character normally exer- cised by State organs, and the conduct of the entity relates to the exercise of the governmental authority concerned. For example, in some countries private security firms may be contracted to act as prison guards and in that capacity may exercise public powers such as powers of detention and discipline pursuant to a judicial sentence or to pris- on regulations. Private or State-owned airlines may have delegated to them certain powers in relation to immigration control or quarantine. In one case before the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, an autonomous foundation estab- lished by the State held property for charitable purposes under close governmental control; its powers included the identification of property for seizure. It was held that it was a public and not a private entity, and therefore within the tribunal’s jurisdiction; with respect to its administra- tion of allegedly expropriated property, it would in any event have been covered by article 5. 127 (3) The fact that an entity can be classified as public or private according to the criteria of a given legal system, the existence of a greater or lesser State participation in its capital, or, more generally, in the ownership of its assets, the fact that it is not subject to executive control—these are not decisive criteria for the purpose of attribution of the entity’s conduct to the State. Instead, article 5 refers to the true common feature, namely that these entities are empowered, if only to a limited extent or in a specific context, to exercise specified elements of governmental authority. (4) Parastatal entities may be considered a relatively modern phenomenon, but the principle embodied in ar- ticle 5 has been recognized for some time. For example, the replies to the request for information made by the Preparatory Committee for the 1930 Hague Conference indicated strong support from some Governments for the attribution to the State of the conduct of autonomous bod- ies exercising public functions of an administrative or leg- islative character. The German Government, for example, asserted that: when, by delegation of powers, bodies act in a public capacity, e.g., police an area … the principles governing the responsibility of the State for its organs apply with equal force. From the point of view of inter- national law, it does not matter whether a State polices a given area with its own police or entrusts this duty, to a greater or less extent, to autonomous bodies. 1 The Preparatory Committee accordingly prepared the following basis of discussion, though the Third Commit- 1 Hyatt International Corporation v. The Government of the Is- lamic Republic of Iran, Iran-U.S. C.T.R., vol. 9, p. 72, at pp. 88–94 (1985). 1 League of Nations, Conference for the Codification of Inter- national Law, Bases of Discussion … (see footnote 88 above), p. 90. The German Government noted that these remarks would extend to the situation where “the State, as an exceptional measure, invests private organisations with public powers and duties or authorities [sic] them to exercise sovereign rights, as in the case of private railway companies permitted to maintain a police force”, ibid. tee of the Conference was unable in the time available to examine it: A State is responsible for damage suffered by a foreigner as the result of acts or omissions of such … autonomous institutions as exercise public functions of a legislative or administrative character, if such acts or omissions contravene the international obligations of the State. 19 (5) The justification for attributing to the State under in- ternational law the conduct of “parastatal” entities lies in the fact that the internal law of the State has conferred on the entity in question the exercise of certain elements of the governmental authority. If it is to be regarded as an act of the State for purposes of international responsibility, the conduct of an entity must accordingly concern govern- mental activity and not other private or commercial activ- ity in which the entity may engage. Thus, for example, the conduct of a railway company to which certain police powers have been granted will be regarded as an act of the State under international law if it concerns the exercise of those powers, but not if it concerns other activities (e.g. the sale of tickets or the purchase of rolling stock). (6) Article 5 does not attempt to identify precisely the scope of “governmental authority” for the purpose of at- tribution of the conduct of an entity to the State. Beyond a certain limit, what is regarded as “governmental” de- pends on the particular society, its history and traditions. Of particular importance will be not just the content of the powers, but the way they are conferred on an entity, the purposes for which they are to be exercised and the extent to which the entity is accountable to government for their exercise. These are essentially questions of the application of a general standard to varied circumstances. (7) The formulation of article 5 clearly limits it to en- tities which are empowered by internal law to exercise governmental authority. This is to be distinguished from situations where an entity acts under the direction or control of the State, which are covered by article 8, and those where an entity or group seizes power in the absence of State organs but in situations where the exercise of governmental authority is called for: these are dealt with in article 9. For the purposes of article 5, an entity is covered even if its exercise of authority involves an in- dependent discretion or power to act; there is no need to show that the conduct was in fact carried out under the control of the State. On the other hand, article 5 does not extend to cover, for example, situations where internal law authorizes or justifies certain conduct by way of self- help or self-defence; i.e. where it confers powers upon or authorizes conduct by citizens or residents generally. The internal law in question must specifically authorize the conduct as involving the exercise of public author- ity; it is not enough that it permits activity as part of the general regulation of the affairs of the community. It is accordingly a narrow category. Article 6. Conduct of organs placed at the disposal of a State by another State The conduct of an organ placed at the disposal of a State by another State shall be considered an act of the former State under international law if the organ is 19 Ibid., p. 92. Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session acting in the exercise of elements of the governmental authority of the State at whose disposal it is placed. Commentary (1) Article 6 deals with the limited and precise situation in which an organ of a State is effectively put at the dis- posal of another State so that the organ may temporarily act for its benefit and under its authority. In such a case, the organ, originally that of one State, acts exclusively for the purposes of and on behalf of another State and its con- duct is attributed to the latter State alone. (2) The words “placed at the disposal of ” in article 6 express the essential condition that must be met in order for the conduct of the organ to be regarded under interna- tional law as an act of the receiving and not of the sending State. The notion of an organ “placed at the disposal of ” the receiving State is a specialized one, implying that the organ is acting with the consent, under the authority of and for the purposes of the receiving State. Not only must the organ be appointed to perform functions appertaining to the State at whose disposal it is placed, but in perform- ing the functions entrusted to it by the beneficiary State, the organ must also act in conjunction with the machinery of that State and under its exclusive direction and con- trol, rather than on instructions from the sending State. Thus article 6 is not concerned with ordinary situations of inter-State cooperation or collaboration, pursuant to treaty or otherwise. 130 (3) Examples of situations that could come within this limited notion of a State organ “placed at the disposal” of another State might include a section of the health serv- ice or some other unit placed under the orders of another country to assist in overcoming an epidemic or natural disaster, or judges appointed in particular cases to act as judicial organs of another State. On the other hand, mere aid or assistance offered by organs of one State to another on the territory of the latter is not covered by article 6. For example, armed forces may be sent to assist another State in the exercise of the right of collective self-defence or for other purposes. Where the forces in question remain under the authority of the sending State, they exercise ele- ments of the governmental authority of that State and not of the receiving State. Situations can also arise where the organ of one State acts on the joint instructions of its own and another State, or there may be a single entity which is a joint organ of several States. In these cases, the conduct in question is attributable to both States under other arti- cles of this chapter. 131 (4) Thus, what is crucial for the purposes of article 6 is the establishment of a functional link between the organ in question and the structure or authority of the receiv- 130 Thus, the conduct of Italy in policing illegal immigration at sea pursuant to an agreement with Albania was not attributable to Albania: Xhavara and Others v. Italy and Albania, application No. 39473/98, Eur. Court H.R., decision of 11 January 2001. Conversely, the conduct of Turkey taken in the context of the Turkey-European Communities customs union was still attributable to Turkey: see WTO, Report of the Panel, Turkey: Restrictions on Imports of Textile and Clothing Products (WT/DS34/R), 31 May 1999, paras. 9.33–9.44. 11 See also article 47 and commentary. ing State. The notion of an organ “placed at the disposal” of another State excludes the case of State organs, sent to another State for the purposes of the former State or even for shared purposes, which retain their own autono- my and status: for example, cultural missions, diplomatic or consular missions, foreign relief or aid organizations. Also excluded from the ambit of article 6 are situations in which functions of the “beneficiary” State are performed without its consent, as when a State placed in a position of dependence, territorial occupation or the like is com- pelled to allow the acts of its own organs to be set aside and replaced to a greater or lesser extent by those of the other State. 132 (5) There are two further criteria that must be met for article 6 to apply. First, the organ in question must possess the status of an organ of the sending State; and secondly its conduct must involve the exercise of elements of the governmental authority of the receiving State. The first of these conditions excludes from the ambit of article 6 the conduct of private entities or individuals which have never had the status of an organ of the sending State. For example, experts or advisers placed at the disposal of a State under technical assistance programmes do not usu- ally have the status of organs of the sending State. The second condition is that the organ placed at the disposal of a State by another State must be “acting in the exercise of elements of the governmental authority” of the receiving State. There will only be an act attributable to the receiv- ing State where the conduct of the loaned organ involves the exercise of the governmental authority of that State. By comparison with the number of cases of cooperative action by States in fields such as mutual defence, aid and development, article 6 covers only a specific and limited notion of “transferred responsibility”. Yet, in State prac- tice the situation is not unknown. (6) In the Chevreau case, a British consul in Persia, temporarily placed in charge of the French consulate, lost some papers entrusted to him. On a claim being brought by France, Arbitrator Beichmann held that: “the British Government cannot be held responsible for negligence by its Consul in his capacity as the person in charge of the Consulate of another Power.” 133 It is implicit in the Arbitrator’s finding that the agreed terms on which the British Consul was acting contained no provision allocat- ing responsibility for the Consul’s acts. If a third State had brought a claim, the proper respondent in accordance with article 6 would have been the State on whose behalf the conduct in question was carried out. (7) Similar issues were considered by the European Commission of Human Rights in two cases relating to the exercise by Swiss police in Liechtenstein of “delegated” powers. 134 At the relevant time Liechtenstein was not 1 For the responsibility of a State for directing, controlling or coercing the internationally wrongful act of another, see articles 17 and 18 and commentaries. 1 UNRIAA, vol. II (Sales No. 1949.V.1), p. 1113, at p. 1141 (1931). 1 X and Y v. Switzerland, application Nos. 7289/75 and 7349/76, decision of 14 July 1977; Council of Europe, European Commission of Human Rights, Decisions and Reports, vol. 9, p. 57; and Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1977, vol. 20 (1978), p. 372, at pp. 402–406. State responsibility 5 a party to the Convention for the Protection of Human Rights and Fundamental Freedoms (European Conven- tion on Human Rights), so that if the conduct was attrib- utable only to Liechtenstein no breach of the Convention could have occurred. The Commission held the case ad- missible, on the basis that under the treaty governing the relations between Switzerland and Liechtenstein of 1923, Switzerland exercised its own customs and immigration jurisdiction in Liechtenstein, albeit with the latter’s con- sent and in their mutual interest. The officers in question were governed exclusively by Swiss law and were consid- ered to be exercising the public authority of Switzerland. In that sense, they were not “placed at the disposal” of the receiving State. 135 (8) A further, long-standing example of a situation to which article 6 applies is the Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, which has acted as the final court of appeal for a number of independent States within the Common- wealth. Decisions of the Privy Council on appeal from an independent Commonwealth State will be attributable to that State and not to the United Kingdom. The Privy Council’s role is paralleled by certain final courts of ap- peal acting pursuant to treaty arrangements. 136 There are many examples of judges seconded by one State to anoth- er for a time: in their capacity as judges of the receiving State, their decisions are not attributable to the sending State, even if it continues to pay their salaries. (9) Similar questions could also arise in the case of or- gans of international organizations placed at the disposal of a State and exercising elements of that State’s gov- ernmental authority. This is even more exceptional than the inter-State cases to which article 6 is limited. It also raises difficult questions of the relations between States and international organizations, questions which fall out- side the scope of these articles. Article 57 accordingly ex- cludes from the ambit of the articles all questions of the responsibility of international organizations or of a State for the acts of an international organization. By the same token, article 6 does not concern those cases where, for example, accused persons are transferred by a State to an international institution pursuant to treaty. 137 In cooperat- ing with international institutions in such a case, the State concerned does not assume responsibility for their subse- quent conduct. Article 7. Excess of authority or contravention of instructions The conduct of an organ of a State or of a person or entity empowered to exercise elements of the gov- ernmental authority shall be considered an act of the 1 See also Drozd and Janousek v. France and Spain, Eur. Court H.R., Series A, No. 240 (1992), paras. 96 and 110. See also Controller and Auditor-General v. Davison (New Zealand, Court of Appeal), ILR, vol. 104 (1996), p. 526, at pp. 536–537 (Cooke, P.) and pp. 574–576 (Richardson, J.). An appeal to the Privy Council on other grounds was dismissed, Brannigan v. Davison, ibid., vol. 108, p. 622. 16 For example, Agreement relating to Appeals to the High Court of Australia from the Supreme Court of Nauru (Nauru, 6 September 1976) (United Nations, Treaty Series, vol. 1216, No. 19617, p. 151). 1 See, e.g., article 89 of the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court. State under international law if the organ, person or entity acts in that capacity, even if it exceeds its author- ity or contravenes instructions. Commentary (1) Article 7 deals with the important question of un- authorized or ultra vires acts of State organs or entities. It makes it clear that the conduct of a State organ or an entity empowered to exercise elements of the governmen- tal authority, acting in its official capacity, is attributable to the State even if the organ or entity acted in excess of authority or contrary to instructions. (2) The State cannot take refuge behind the notion that, according to the provisions of its internal law or to instructions which may have been given to its organs or agents, their actions or omissions ought not to have occurred or ought to have taken a different form. This is so even where the organ or entity in question has overtly committed unlawful acts under the cover of its official status or has manifestly exceeded its competence. It is so even if other organs of the State have disowned the conduct in question. 138 Any other rule would contradict the basic principle stated in article 3, since otherwise a State could rely on its internal law in order to argue that conduct, in fact carried out by its organs, was not attrib- utable to it. (3) The rule evolved in response to the need for clar- ity and security in international relations. Despite early equivocal statements in diplomatic practice and by arbi- tral tribunals, 139 State practice came to support the propo- sition, articulated by the British Government in response to an Italian request, that “all Governments should always be held responsible for all acts committed by their agents by virtue of their official capacity”. 140 As the Spanish Government pointed out: “If this were not the case, one would end by authorizing abuse, for in most cases there would be no practical way of proving that the agent had or had not acted on orders received.” 141 At this time the United States supported “a rule of international law that sovereigns are not liable, in diplomatic procedure, for damages to a foreigner when arising from the misconduct of agents acting out of the range not only of their real but 1 See, e.g., the “Star and Herald” controversy, Moore, Digest, vol. VI, p. 775. 19 In a number of early cases, international responsibility was attributed to the State for the conduct of officials without making it clear whether the officials had exceeded their authority: see, e.g., the following cases: “Only Son”, Moore, History and Digest, vol. IV, pp. 3404–3405; “William Lee”, ibid., p. 3405; and Donoughho’s, ibid., vol. III, p. 3012. Where the question was expressly examined, tribunals did not consistently apply any single principle: see, e.g., the Lewis’s case, ibid., p. 3019; the Gadino case, UNRIAA, vol. XV (Sales No. 66.V.3), p. 414 (1901); the Lacaze case, Lapradelle-Politis, vol. II, p. 290, at pp. 297–298; and the“William Yeaton” case, Moore, History and Digest, vol. III, p. 2944, at p. 2946. 10 For the opinions of the British and Spanish Governments giv- en in 1898 at the request of Italy in respect of a dispute with Peru, see Archivio del Ministero degli Affari esteri italiano, serie politica P, No. 43. 11 Note verbale by Duke Almodóvar del Río, 4 July 1898, ibid. 6 Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session of their apparent authority”. 142 It is probable that the dif- ferent formulations had essentially the same effect, since acts falling outside the scope of both real and apparent authority would not be performed “by virtue of … official capacity”. In any event, by the time of the 1930 Hague Conference, a majority of States responding to the Prepar- atory Committee’s request for information were clearly in favour of the broadest formulation of the rule, providing for attribution to the State in the case of “[a]cts of officials in the national territory in their public capacity (actes de fonction) but exceeding their authority”. 143 The Basis of Discussion prepared by the Committee reflected this view. The Third Committee of the Conference adopted an article on first reading in the following terms: International responsibility is … incurred by a State if damage is sus- tained by a foreigner as a result of unauthorised acts of its officials performed under cover of their official character, if the acts contravene the international obligations of the State. 1 (4) The modern rule is now firmly established in this sense by international jurisprudence, State practice and the writings of jurists. 145 It is confirmed, for example, in article 91 of the Protocol Additional to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949, and relating to the protection of victims of international armed conflicts (Protocol I), which provides that: “A Party to the conflict … shall be responsible for all acts committed by persons forming part of its armed forces”: this clearly covers acts committed contrary to orders or instructions. The com- mentary notes that article 91 was adopted by consensus and “correspond[s] to the general principles of law on international responsibility”. 146 (5) A definitive formulation of the modern rule is found in the Caire case. The case concerned the murder of a French national by two Mexican officers who, after fail- ing to extort money, took Caire to the local barracks and shot him. The Commission held: that the two officers, even if they are deemed to have acted outside their competence … and even if their superiors countermanded an order, have involved the responsibility of the State, since they acted under cover of their status as officers and used means placed at their disposal on account of that status. 1 1 “American Bible Society” incident, statement of United States Secretary of State, 17 August 1885, Moore, Digest, vol. VI, p. 743; “Shine and Milligen”, G. H. Hackworth, Digest of International Law (Washington, D.C., United States Government Printing Office, 1943), vol. V, p. 575; and “Miller”, ibid., pp. 570–571. 1 League of Nations, Conference for the Codification of Interna- tional Law, Bases of Discussion … (see footnote 88 above), point V, No. 2 (b), p. 74, and Supplement to Vol. III … (see footnote 104 above), pp. 3 and 17. 1 League of Nations, Conference for the Codification of Interna- tional Law, Bases of Discussion ..., document C.351(c)M.145(c).1930. V (see footnote 88 above), p. 237. For a more detailed account of the evolution of the modern rule, see Yearbook … 1975, vol. II, pp. 61–70. 1 For example, the 1961 revised draft by the Special Rapporteur, Mr. García Amador, provided that “an act or omission shall likewise be imputable to the State if the organs or officials concerned exceeded their competence but purported to be acting in their official capacity” (Yearbook ... 1961, vol. II, p. 53). 16 ICRC, Commentary on the Additional Protocols of 8 June 1977 to the Geneva Conventions of 12 August 1949 (Geneva, Martinus Nijhoff, 1987), pp. 1053–1054. 1 Caire (see footnote 125 above). For other statements of the rule, see Maal, UNRIAA, vol. X (Sales No. 60.V.4), pp. 732–733 (1903); La Masica, ibid., vol. XI (Sales No. 61.V.4), p. 560 (1916); Youmans (footnote 117 above); Mallén, ibid.; Stephens, UNRIAA, (6) International human rights courts and tribunals have applied the same rule. For example, the Inter- American Court of Human Rights in the Velásquez Rodríguez case said: This conclusion [of a breach of the Convention] is independent of whether the organ or official has contravened provisions of internal law or overstepped the limits of his authority: under international law a State is responsible for the acts of its agents undertaken in their official capacity and for their omissions, even when those agents act outside the sphere of their authority or violate internal law. 1 (7) The central issue to be addressed in determining the applicability of article 7 to unauthorized conduct of official bodies is whether the conduct was performed by the body in an official capacity or not. Cases where officials acted in their capacity as such, albeit unlawfully or contrary to instructions, must be distinguished from cases where the conduct is so removed from the scope of their official functions that it should be assimilated to that of private individuals, not attributable to the State. In the words of the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal, the question is whether the conduct has been “carried out by persons cloaked with governmental authority”. 149 (8) The problem of drawing the line between unauthor- ized but still “official” conduct, on the one hand, and “pri- vate” conduct on the other, may be avoided if the con- duct complained of is systematic or recurrent, such that the State knew or ought to have known of it and should have taken steps to prevent it. However, the distinction between the two situations still needs to be made in some cases, for example when considering isolated instances of outrageous conduct on the part of persons who are offi- cials. That distinction is reflected in the expression “if the organ, person or entity acts in that capacity” in arti- cle 7. This indicates that the conduct referred to comprises only the actions and omissions of organs purportedly or apparently carrying out their official functions, and not the private actions or omissions of individuals who happen to be organs or agents of the State. 150 In short, the question is whether they were acting with apparent authority. (9) As formulated, article 7 only applies to the con- duct of an organ of a State or of an entity empowered to exercise elements of the governmental authority, i.e. vol. IV (Sales No. 1951.V.1), pp. 267–268 (1927); and Way (footnote 114 above), pp. 400–401. The decision of the United States Court of Claims in Royal Holland Lloyd v. United States, 73 Ct. Cl. 722 (1931) (Annual Digest of Public International Law Cases (London, Butter- worth, 1938), vol. 6, p. 442) is also often cited. 1 Velásquez Rodríguez (see footnote 63 above); see also ILR, vol. 95, p. 232, at p. 296. 19 Petrolane, Inc. v. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran-U.S. C.T.R., vol. 27, p. 64, at p. 92 (1991). See also paragraph (13) of the commentary to article 4. 10 One form of ultra vires conduct covered by article 7 would be for a State official to accept a bribe to perform some act or conclude some transaction. The articles are not concerned with questions that would then arise as to the validity of the transaction (cf. the 1969 Vienna Convention, art. 50). So far as responsibility for the corrupt conduct is concerned, various situations could arise which it is not nec- essary to deal with expressly in the present articles. Where one State bribes an organ of another to perform some official act, the corrupt- ing State would be responsible either under article 8 or article 17. The question of the responsibility of the State whose official had been bribed towards the corrupting State in such a case could hardly arise, but there could be issues of its responsibility towards a third party, which would be properly resolved under article 7. State responsibility only to those cases of attribution covered by articles 4, 5 and 6. Problems of unauthorized conduct by other persons, groups or entities give rise to distinct problems, which are dealt with separately under articles 8, 9 and 10. (10) As a rule of attribution, article 7 is not concerned with the question whether the conduct amounted to a breach of an international obligation. The fact that instruc- tions given to an organ or entity were ignored, or that its actions were ultra vires, may be relevant in determining whether or not the obligation has been breached, but that is a separate issue. 151 Equally, article 7 is not concerned with the admissibility of claims arising from internation- ally wrongful acts committed by organs or agents acting ultra vires or contrary to their instructions. Where there has been an unauthorized or invalid act under local law and as a result a local remedy is available, this will have to be resorted to, in accordance with the principle of exhaus- tion of local remedies, before bringing an international claim. 152 Article 8. Conduct directed or controlled by a State The conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a State under international law if the person or group of persons is in fact acting on the instructions of, or under the direction or control of, that State in carrying out the conduct. Commentary (1) As a general principle, the conduct of private per- sons or entities is not attributable to the State under in- ternational law. Circumstances may arise, however, where such conduct is nevertheless attributable to the State be- cause there exists a specific factual relationship between the person or entity engaging in the conduct and the State. Article 8 deals with two such circumstances. The first in- volves private persons acting on the instructions of the State in carrying out the wrongful conduct. The second deals with a more general situation where private persons act under the State’s direction or control. 153 Bearing in mind the important role played by the principle of effec- tiveness in international law, it is necessary to take into account in both cases the existence of a real link between the person or group performing the act and the State ma- chinery. (2) The attribution to the State of conduct in fact au- thorized by it is widely accepted in international jurispru- dence. 154 In such cases it does not matter that the person or persons involved are private individuals nor whether 11 See ELSI (footnote 85 above), especially at pp. 52, 62 and 74. 1 See further article 44, subparagraph (b), and commentary. 1 Separate issues are raised where one State engages in interna- tionally wrongful conduct at the direction or under the control of another State: see article 17 and commentary, and especially para- graph (7) for the meaning of the words “direction” and “control” in various languages. 1 See, e.g., the Zafiro case, UNRIAA, vol. VI (Sales No. 1955. V.3), p. 160 (1925); the Stephens case (footnote 147 above), p. 267; and Lehigh Valley Railroad Company and Others (U.S.A.) v. Germa- ny (Sabotage cases): “Black Tom” and “Kingsland” incidents, ibid., vol. VIII (Sales No. 58.V.2), p. 84 (1930) and p. 458 (1939). their conduct involves “governmental activity”. Most commonly, cases of this kind will arise where State organs supplement their own action by recruiting or instigating private persons or groups who act as “auxiliaries” while remaining outside the official structure of the State. These include, for example, individuals or groups of private indi- viduals who, though not specifically commissioned by the State and not forming part of its police or armed forces, are employed as auxiliaries or are sent as “volunteers” to neighbouring countries, or who are instructed to carry out particular missions abroad. (3) More complex issues arise in determining whether conduct was carried out “under the direction or control” of a State. Such conduct will be attributable to the State only if it directed or controlled the specific operation and the conduct complained of was an integral part of that op- eration. The principle does not extend to conduct which was only incidentally or peripherally associated with an operation and which escaped from the State’s direction or control. (4) The degree of control which must be exercised by the State in order for the conduct to be attributable to it was a key issue in the Military and Paramilitary Ac- tivities in and against Nicaragua case. The question was whether the conduct of the contras was attributable to the United States so as to hold the latter generally responsible for breaches of international humanitarian law commit- ted by the contras. This was analysed by ICJ in terms of the notion of “control”. On the one hand, it held that the United States was responsible for the “planning, direction and support” given by the United States to Nicaraguan operatives. 155 But it rejected the broader claim of Nica- ragua that all the conduct of the contras was attributable to the United States by reason of its control over them. It concluded that: [D]espite the heavy subsidies and other support provided to them by the United States, there is no clear evidence of the United States having actually exercised such a degree of control in all fields as to justify treating the contras as acting on its behalf. … All the forms of United States participation mentioned above, and even the general control by the respondent State over a force with a high degree of dependency on it, would not in themselves mean, without further evidence, that the United States directed or enforced the per- petration of the acts contrary to human rights and humanitarian law alleged by the applicant State. Such acts could well be committed by members of the contras without the control of the United States. For this conduct to give rise to legal responsibility of the United States, it would in principle have to be proved that that State had effective control of the military or paramilitary operations in the course of which the alleged violations were committed. 16 Thus while the United States was held responsible for its own support for the contras, only in certain individual instances were the acts of the contras themselves held attributable to it, based upon actual participation of and directions given by that State. The Court confirmed that a general situation of dependence and support would be 1 Military and Paramilitary Activities in and against Nicaragua (see footnote 36 above), p. 51, para. 86. 16 Ibid., pp. 62 and 64–65, paras. 109 and 115. See also the concur- ring opinion of Judge Ago, ibid., p. 189, para. 17. Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session insufficient to justify attribution of the conduct to the State. (5) The Appeals Chamber of the International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia has also addressed these issues. In the Tadi´c, case, the Chamber stressed that: The requirement of international law for the attribution to States of acts performed by private individuals is that the State exercises control over the individuals. The degree of control may, however, vary according to the factual circumstances of each case. The Appeals Chamber fails to see why in each and every circumstance international law should require a high threshold for the test of control. 1 The Appeals Chamber held that the requisite degree of control by the Yugoslavian “authorities over these armed forces required by international law for considering the armed conflict to be international was overall control going beyond the mere financing and equipping of such forces and involving also participation in the planning and supervision of military operations”. 158 In the course of their reasoning, the majority considered it necessary to disapprove the ICJ approach in the Military and Paramili- tary Activities in and against Nicaragua case. But the legal issues and the factual situation in the Tadi´c case were dif- ferent from those facing the Court in that case. The tribu- nal’s mandate is directed to issues of individual criminal responsibility, not State responsibility, and the question in that case concerned not responsibility but the applicable rules of international humanitarian law. 159 In any event it is a matter for appreciation in each case whether particu- lar conduct was or was not carried out under the control of a State, to such an extent that the conduct controlled should be attributed to it. 160 (6) Questions arise with respect to the conduct of com- panies or enterprises which are State-owned and control- led. If such corporations act inconsistently with the inter- national obligations of the State concerned the question arises whether such conduct is attributable to the State. In discussing this issue it is necessary to recall that interna- tional law acknowledges the general separateness of cor- porate entities at the national level, except in those cases where the “corporate veil” is a mere device or a vehicle for fraud or evasion. 161 The fact that the State initially es- tablishes a corporate entity, whether by a special law or otherwise, is not a sufficient basis for the attribution to the State of the subsequent conduct of that entity. 162 Since 1 Prosecutor v. Duško Tadi´c, International Tribunal for the Former Yugoslavia, Case IT-94-1-A (1999), ILM, vol. 38, No. 6 (November 1999), p. 1518, at p. 1541, para. 117. For the judgment of the Trial Chamber (Case IT-94-1-T (1997)), see ILR, vol. 112, p. 1. 1 ILM, vol. 38, No. 6 (November 1999), p. 1546, para. 145. 19 See the explanation given by Judge Shahabuddeen, ibid., pp. 1614–1615. 160 The problem of the degree of State control necessary for the purposes of attribution of conduct to the State has also been dealt with, for example, by the Iran-United States Claims Tribunal and the Euro- pean Court of Human Rights: Yeager (see footnote 101 above), p. 103. See also Starrett Housing Corporation v. Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran-U.S. C.T.R., vol. 4, p. 122, at p. 143 (1983); Loizidou v. Turkey, Merits, Eur. Court H.R., Reports, 1996–VI, p. 2216, at pp. 2235–2236, para. 56, also p. 2234, para. 52; and ibid., Prelimi- nary Objections, Eur. Court H.R., Series A, No. 310, p. 23, para. 62 (1995). 161 Barcelona Traction (see footnote 25 above), p. 39, paras. 56–58. 16 For example, the Workers’ Councils considered in Schering Corporation v. The Islamic Republic of Iran, Iran-U.S. C.T.R., corporate entities, although owned by and in that sense subject to the control of the State, are considered to be separate, prima facie their conduct in carrying out their activities is not attributable to the State unless they are exercising elements of governmental authority within the meaning of article 5. This was the position taken, for example, in relation to the de facto seizure of property by a State-owned oil company, in a case where there was no proof that the State used its ownership interest as a vehicle for directing the company to seize the property. 163 On the other hand, where there was evidence that the corporation was exercising public powers, 164 or that the State was us- ing its ownership interest in or control of a corporation specifically in order to achieve a particular result, 165 the conduct in question has been attributed to the State. 166 (7) It is clear then that a State may, either by specif- ic directions or by exercising control over a group, in effect assume responsibility for their conduct. Each case will depend on its own facts, in particular those concern- ing the relationship between the instructions given or the direction or control exercised and the specific conduct complained of. In the text of article 8, the three terms “in- structions”, “direction” and “control” are disjunctive; it is sufficient to establish any one of them. At the same time it is made clear that the instructions, direction or control must relate to the conduct which is said to have amounted to an internationally wrongful act. (8) Where a State has authorized an act, or has exercised direction or control over it, questions can arise as to the State’s responsibility for actions going beyond the scope of the authorization. For example, questions might arise if the agent, while carrying out lawful instructions or directions, engages in some activity which contravenes both the instructions or directions given and the inter- national obligations of the instructing State. Such cases can be resolved by asking whether the unlawful or unau- thorized conduct was really incidental to the mission or clearly went beyond it. In general a State, in giving lawful instructions to persons who are not its organs, does not assume the risk that the instructions will be carried out in an internationally unlawful way. On the other hand, where persons or groups have committed acts under the effective control of a State, the condition for attribution will still be met even if particular instructions may have been ignored. vol. 5, p. 361 (1984); Otis Elevator Company v. The Islamic Republic of Iran, ibid., vol. 14, p. 283 (1987); and Eastman Kodak Company v. The Government of Iran, ibid., vol. 17, p. 153 (1987). 16 SEDCO, Inc. v. National Iranian Oil Company, ibid., vol. 15, p. 23 (1987). See also International Technical Products Corporation v. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, ibid., vol. 9, p. 206 (1985); and Flexi-Van Leasing, Inc. v. The Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran, ibid., vol. 12, p. 335, at p. 349 (1986). 16 Phillips Petroleum Company Iran v. The Islamic Republic of Iran, ibid., vol. 21, p. 79 (1989); and Petrolane (see footnote 149 above). 16 Foremost Tehran, Inc. v. The Government of the Islamic Repub- lic of Iran, Iran-U.S. ibid., vol. 10, p. 228 (1986); and American Bell International Inc. v. The Islamic Republic of Iran, ibid., vol. 12, p. 170 (1986). 166 See Hertzberg et al. v. Finland (Official Records of the Gen- eral Assembly, Thirty-seventh Session, Supplement No. 40 (A/37/40), annex XIV, communication No. R.14/61, p. 161, at p. 164, para. 9.1) (1982). See also X v. Ireland, application No. 4125/69, Yearbook of the European Convention on Human Rights, 1971, vol. 14 (1973), p. 199; and Young, James and Webster v. the United Kingdom, Eur. Court H.R., Series A, No. 44 (1981). State responsibility 9 The conduct will have been committed under the control of the State and it will be attributable to the State in ac- cordance with article 8. (9) Article 8 uses the words “person or group of per- sons”, reflecting the fact that conduct covered by the arti- cle may be that of a group lacking separate legal personal- ity but acting on a de facto basis. Thus, while a State may authorize conduct by a legal entity such as a corporation, it may also deal with aggregates of individuals or groups that do not have legal personality but are nonetheless act- ing as a collective. Article 9. Conduct carried out in the absence or default of the official authorities The conduct of a person or group of persons shall be considered an act of a State under international law if the person or group of persons is in fact exercising elements of the governmental authority in the absence or default of the official authorities and in circumstanc- es such as to call for the exercise of those elements of authority. Commentary (1) Article 9 deals with the exceptional case of conduct in the exercise of elements of the governmental authority by a person or group of persons acting in the absence of the official authorities and without any actual authority to do so. The exceptional nature of the circumstances envisaged in the article is indicated by the phrase “in circumstances such as to call for”. Such cases occur only rarely, such as during revolution, armed conflict or foreign occupation, where the regular authorities dissolve, are disintegrating, have been suppressed or are for the time being inopera- tive. They may also cover cases where lawful authority is being gradually restored, e.g. after foreign occupation. (2) The principle underlying article 9 owes something to the old idea of the levée en masse, the self-defence of the citizenry in the absence of regular forces: 167 in effect it is a form of agency of necessity. Instances continue to occur from time to time in the field of State responsibility. Thus, the position of the Revolutionary Guards or “Komitehs” immediately after the revolution in the Islamic Republic of Iran was treated by the Iran-United States Claims Tri- bunal as covered by the principle expressed in article 9. Yeager concerned, inter alia, the action of performing im- migration, customs and similar functions at Tehran airport in the immediate aftermath of the revolution. The tribunal held the conduct attributable to the Islamic Republic of Iran, on the basis that, if it was not actually authorized by the Government, then the Guards: 16 This principle is recognized as legitimate by article 2 of the Regu- lations respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land (annexed to the Hague Conventions II of 1899 and IV of 1907 respecting the Laws and Customs of War on Land); and by article 4, paragraph A (6), of the Geneva Convention relative to the Treatment of Prisoners of War of 12 August 1949. at least exercised elements of governmental authority in the absence of official authorities, in operations of which the new Government must have had knowledge and to which it did not specifically object. 168 (3) Article 9 establishes three conditions which must be met in order for conduct to be attributable to the State: first, the conduct must effectively relate to the exercise of elements of the governmental authority, secondly, the con- duct must have been carried out in the absence or default of the official authorities, and thirdly, the circumstances must have been such as to call for the exercise of those elements of authority. (4) As regards the first condition, the person or group acting must be performing governmental functions, though they are doing so on their own initiative. In this respect, the nature of the activity performed is given more weight than the existence of a formal link between the actors and the organization of the State. It must be stressed that the private persons covered by article 9 are not equivalent to a general de facto Government. The cases envisaged by article 9 presuppose the existence of a Government in of- fice and of State machinery whose place is taken by ir- regulars or whose action is supplemented in certain cases. This may happen on part of the territory of a State which is for the time being out of control, or in other specific circumstances. A general de facto Government, on the other hand, is itself an apparatus of the State, replacing that which existed previously. The conduct of the organs of such a Government is covered by article 4 rather than article 9. 169 (5) In respect of the second condition, the phrase “in the absence or default of ” is intended to cover both the situ- ation of a total collapse of the State apparatus as well as cases where the official authorities are not exercising their functions in some specific respect, for instance, in the case of a partial collapse of the State or its loss of control over a certain locality. The phrase “absence or default” seeks to capture both situations. (6) The third condition for attribution under article 9 requires that the circumstances must have been such as to call for the exercise of elements of the governmental authority by private persons. The term “call for” conveys the idea that some exercise of governmental functions was called for, though not necessarily the conduct in question. In other words, the circumstances surrounding the exer- cise of elements of the governmental authority by private persons must have justified the attempt to exercise police or other functions in the absence of any constituted au- thority. There is thus a normative element in the form of agency entailed by article 9, and this distinguishes these situations from the normal principle that conduct of pri- vate parties, including insurrectionary forces, is not at- tributable to the State. 170 16 Yeager (see footnote 101 above), p. 104, para. 43. 169 See, e.g., the award of 18 October 1923 by Arbitrator Taft in the Tinoco case (footnote 87 above), pp. 381–382. On the responsibility of the State for the conduct of de facto Governments, see also J. A. Frowein, Das de facto-Regime im Völkerrecht (Cologne, Heymanns, 1968), pp. 70–71. Conduct of a Government in exile might be covered by article 9, depending on the circumstances. 10 See, e.g., the Sambiaggio case, UNRIAA, vol. X (Sales No. 60.V.4), p. 499, at p. 512 (1904); see also article 10 and commentary. 50 Report of the International Law Commission on the work of its fifty-third session Article 10. Conduct of an insurrectional or other movement 1. The conduct of an insurrectional movement which becomes the new Government of a State shall be considered an act of that State under international law. 2. The conduct of a movement, insurrectional or other, which succeeds in establishing a new State in Download 5.05 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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