Editor: M. Orth Thrombocytopathy: an update
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10.1515 jlm.2011.014 et
Hemostaseology Editor: M. Orth Thrombocytopathy: an update # Tim Drogies 1, *, Leanthe Braunert 2 , Joachim Thiery 1 and Mathias Brügel 1 1 Institut für Laboratoriumsmedizin, Klinische Chemie und Molekulare Diagnostik, Universitätsklinikum Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany 2 Department für Innere Medizin, Dermatologie und Neurologie, Selbstständige Abteilung für Hämatologie, Internistische Onkologie und Hämostaseologie Universitätsklinikum Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany Keywords: Platelet function; bleeding clarification; throm- bocytopathy. Introduction The regulation of blood coagulation represents a central me- chanism in the integrity of the blood-vascular system. On the one hand it supports wound closure following an injury and thereby prevents major blood loss. On the other hand the fi- nely regulated mechanisms of thrombolysis and fibrinolysis maintain continuous blood flow and thereby ensures ade- quate blood circulation. This balance is maintained through the interplay of thrombocytic, plasmatic, fibrinolytic and vas- cular factors. The clinical picture of the congenital or the ac- quired disorders of these processes ranges from hemorrhagic diatheses to microangiopathic disorders and on to severe thrombotic manifestations. This study focuses on the importance of platelets in he- mostasis and discusses essential aspects of the clinical and laboratory diagnostic classification of thrombocytic disorders in the diagnostic confirmation of hemorrhagic diatheses. The physiologic importance of platelets in hemostasis Primary platelet adhesion When an injury exposes sub-endothelial structures in a healthy individual, platelets predominantly adhere via a bond of the glycoprotein (GP) lb-V-IX-receptor complex to the collagen associated von Willebrand factor (vWF). As in the arterial system, this mediation through vWF is needed espe- cially with high shearing rates. With lower shearing rates the primary contact may also occur directly via alternative recep- tors like the collagen receptor GP VI. This primary interac- tion slows the flow of platelets and induces a rolling process during which the stable adhesion to the sub-endothelial layer is made possible. The thrombocytic collagen receptors GPVI and GPIa/IIa are particularly important in this process. The further stabilization of the interaction between platelet and vascular wall is ensured mainly by the GP IIb/IIIa receptor. This induces a further activation as well as a shape change of the platelet, which – through the formation of pseudopodia – makes an effective closure of the vascular lesion possible. Thrombocytic signal transduction and amplification The early bond to sub-endothelial structures induces signal transduction processes within the platelet, that in turn cause an increased expression and activation of adhesion molecules on the cell surface (inside-out signaling). Adherent and activated platelets secrete, for example, adenosindiphosphate (ADP), serotonin or through cyclooxygenase (COX) or throm- boxane synthesis (TXS) produced thromboxane (TX) A 2 , which, G protein-mediated among others, provide autocrine and paracrine strengthening of the activation process after binding to specific receptors and thereby recruit additional platelets in the direct vicinity of the lesion (amplification). Additionally, immediate vascular effects of these mediators support the procoagulatory process. Thrombocytic aggregation To a quite substantial degree the continued activation of the GPIIb/IIIa receptor on the thrombocytic surface is induced and maintained through an increase of the intracellular cal- cium concentration induced within the framework of the ad- hesion and activation processes and the ADP effect mediated through P2Y 1 and P2Y 12 receptors. Further aggregation oc- curs via GPIIb/IIIa, i.e. the spreading of thrombus through the fibrinogen-mediated binding of the platelets with each other, and the stabilization of the primary cell contacts. # Original German online version at: http://www.reference-global. com/toc/labm/35/2. The German article was translated by Compusc- ript Ltd. and authorized by the authors. *Correspondence: Dr. Tim Drogies Institut für Laboratoriumsmedizin, Klinische Chemie und Molekula- re Diagnostik Universitätsklinikum Leipzig, AöR Paul-List-Str. 13 –15 04103 Leipzig, Germany Telefon: +49-341-9722463 FAX: +49-341-9722209 E-mail: tim.drogies@medizin.uni-leipzig.de J Lab Med 2011;35(2):1 –7 © 2011 by Walter de Gruyter • Berlin • New York. DOI 10.1515/JLM.2011.014_et Platelets as mediators between cellular and plasmatic coagulation Thrombocytic hemostasis is substantially influenced by the plasmatic processes that are occurring in parallel. For exam- ple, the thrombin produced in plasmatic hemostasis has a pronounced platelet-activating effect. On the other hand, pla- telets have activating and modulating effects at the level of plasmatic coagulation. Platelets have the capability of short- term creation and release of tissue factor and in this way can directly induce plasmatic coagulation processes. The forma- tion of platelet aggregates within the framework of primary hemostasis is also of critical importance for the course of plas- matic coagulation, since through the exposure of phospholi- pids they act as procoagulatory surface for the complexation of coagulation factors. Platelets can modulate central plas- matic processes through the secretion of procoagulatory and anticoagulatory factors (e.g. factor V, factor VII, vWF, TFPI) from their α-granules. However, the physiologic importance of these processes is as yet largely unclear. Thrombocytopathy – classification and clinical background (Figure 1) Platelet function disorders (thrombocytopathies) are among the most frequent causes of increased hemorrhagic diathesis and the heterogeneity of the functional defects and the vari- able clinical expressions represent a challenge for the clinic and the laboratory. Thrombocytopathies can be acquired or hereditary and involve different functional levels of thrombo- cytic coagulation (adhesion, activation and signal transduc- tion, amplification and aggregation). Acquired disorders of the platelet function More frequent than hereditary disorders of platelet function are acquired disorders, that can be attributed in particular to medications, primary underlying diseases or immunologic phenomina. Medicamentous influence on platelet function About 85% of thrombocytopathies are medication-induced. Therapeutic affection of platelet function is especially impor- tant in the prophylaxis and treatment of cardiovascular events. Inhibitors of cyclooxygenase (ASS), ADP antago- nists (e.g. clopidogrel, prasugrel) or glycoprotein IIb/IIIa an- tagonists affect the central signaling pathways or mechan- isms of the platelet. Particularly when used in combination, e.g. within the scope of stent implantations or together with anticoagulants, they are associated with an increased risk of bleeding. Medicamentous side effects on a thrombocytic level must be differentiated from these typical antithrombocytic medications. Antibiotics, NSAR, cytostatica and psycho- active drugs can significantly influence platelet metabolism and can induce hemorrhagic diathesis. Affection on platelet function within the framework of underlying diseases With secondary thrombocytopathies, the focus is on disor- ders associated with hepatic and uremic factors. Pathophysio- logic discussions range across various mechanisms, such as reduced intrathrombocytic adenine nucleotides or an im- paired interaction between glycoprotein receptors and ligands [1, 2]. Platelet function disorders are also frequently asso- Figure 1 Layers of thrombocytopathic defects. 2 Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update ciated with underlying hematologic diseases, such as mono- clonal gammopathies or myeloproliferative neoplasias. Here, immunologic effects, impaired receptor-ligand interaction as well as intrinsic dysfunctions appear to be of importance. Occasionally idiopathic or with auto-immune diseases asso- ciated auto-antibodies against glycoproteins can induce an acquired hemorrhagic diathesis on the platelet surface. Congenital disorders of platelet function (Table 1) Apart from classic disorders like Bernard-Soulier syndrome (BSS) or Glanzmann ’s thrombasthenia (GT) the prevalence of congenital platelet dysfunctions is largely unclear. On the one hand this is caused by the clinical and inter-individual varia- bility with frequently inapparent developments with absent provocation and on the other by a lack of standardization of the available laboratory diagnostic methods. The various thrombocytopathies are primarily based on disorders in the area of defined functional levels (Figure 1). However, because of the complex and parallel processes within the framework of thrombocytic coagulation these can manifest themselves on various levels. For example, an impaired adhesion can also result in an impairment of the signal transduction [3, 4]. Impairments of thrombocytic adhesion BSS is the best known adhesion defect and is caused by a reduced or absent expression of the GPIb-V-IX complex on the thrombocytic surface. With a homozygous or a double heterozygous hereditary transmission (prevalence 1 : 1 mil- lion) a thrombocytopenia of variable intensity with evidence of macroplatelets is typically found in addition to impaired platelet function. Other disorders involve the receptor- mediated adhesion of platelets to collagen (e.g. GP Ia/IIa- or GP VI defect), fibrinogen (GP IIb/IIIa defect) or the vWF. The subtype 2B of the von Willebrand syndrome, for exam- ple, is caused by a mutation in the area of the GP Ib α and results in an increased interaction between platelets and vWF with a reduction of the large vWF multimers and develop- ment of thrombocytopenia [5]. Disorders of the thrombocytic signal transduction- and amplification This group contains various functional disorders in the area of G protein mediated signal transduction, of enzymatic sys- tems such as cyclooxygenase or thromboxane synthetase (as- pirin-like defect), of the cytoskeleton (e.g. Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome (WAS), MYH9-associated forms) and the ADP re- ceptor-mediated signal amplification (e.g. ADP receptor lack or defect). At present the prevalence of disorders of the sig- nal transduction and enzymatic systems is most probably as- sumed to be distinctly too low [6]. Disorders of thrombocytic secretion These thrombocytopathies called “storage pool diseases” are marked by disorders in the synthesis or the secretion of the constituents of thrombocytic granula. δ granula, called dense bodies because of their electron-dense structure, contain, for example, calcium, ADP and serotonin. α-granula contain var- ious constituents such as platelet factor 4, vWF, fibrinogen or coagulation factors. Pathophysiologically it is the amplifi- cation phase of thrombocytic coagulation in particular that is impaired by these secretion disorders. Furthermore, plasmatic disorders caused by a reduced factor release (e.g. factor V) or an increased release of fibrinolytic factors (Quebec throm- bocytopathy) have been described as well [4, 5, 7]. Numeri- cally secretion disorders represent the probably most impor- tant group of thrombocytopathic disorders, however, because of great inter-individual variability and diagnostic limitations their prevalence is as yet largely unclear. Disorders of thrombocytic aggregation Glanzmann ’s thrombasthenia (GT) is the best known throm- bocytopathy where platelets have a restricted ability to aggre- gate. It is caused by qualitative or quantitative defects of the GPIIb/IIIa receptors. These receptors are of critical impor- tance for the interaction among platelets and the complexa- tion via fibrinogen [8]. Disorders of the procoagulatory surface The characteristic shape change of the platelets is followed by a change in the composition of the membrane and favors the processes of plasmatic coagulation as procoagulatory surface. With qualitative or quantitative defects of this phos- pholipid surface (particularly phosphatidylserine) the throm- bocytic strengthening function can be impaired within the framework of plasmatic thrombin formation (Scott syn- drome) [9]. Table 1 An overview of congenital thrombocytopathies. Group Disorder Example Adhesion defects Impaired adhesion of von Willebrand factor or collagen on thrombocytic receptors Bernard-Soulier syndrome Aggregation defects Impaired fibrinogen bond on thrombocytic receptors Glanzmann ‘s thrombasthenia Signal transduction defects Defects in G-proteins, enzymopathies or in the thrombocytic cytoskeleton Wiskott-Aldrich syndrome, ASS-like syndrome Secretion defects Impaired storage, transport and/ or secretion of ADP, ATP, serotonin δ-storage pool diseases Disorders of the coagulation amplification Changes in the phospholipids on the thrombocytic surface Scott syndrome Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update 3 Clinical findings and anamnesis Clinical findings with thrombocytopathies are extraordinarily variable and can range from subclinical signs of bleeding to life-threatening hemorrhaging. Classic signs of bleeding are hemorrhaging from mucous membranes such as epistaxis, petechial hemorrhaging particularly on the inferior parts of the body, sugillations, menorrhagias or a generally increased hematoma tendency. Frequently there is prolonged bleeding from abrasions or cuts. Instances of bleeding within the fra- mework of a surgical procedure can occur inter-operatively as well as postoperatively. Primarily associated underlying diseases must be ruled out. A positive family anamnesis points to a hereditary background. A thorough anamnesis of medications is a prerequisite for the classification of a possi- ble bleeding background. Especially δ-storage pool diseases often are a part of a complex of symptoms, e.g. when com- bined with immune defect syndrome or metabolic disorders. Laboratory-medical diagnostics in the clarification of thrombocytopathies Because of the variable clinical findings with unspecific signs of bleeding, thrombocytopathy should always be ruled out when clarifying the cause of bleeding liability. If there is no laboratory-diagnostic correlate during the initial examina- tion, a possibly expanded diagnostic repeat is required. Much like clinical findings laboratory-diagnostic findings in part also demonstrate high variability. Pre-analytic influencing variables Pre-analytics play a critical role in the diagnosis of platelet function and last but not least must be taken into account in the interpretation of laboratory-diagnostic findings. Test material The various procedures in platelet function testing usually require the use of citrated plasma with par- tially different citrate content or citrated whole blood [10, 11]. Citrate-anticoagulated whole blood is used particu- larly for flow cytometry procedures or further function tests. Blood collection Blood collection must be largely atrau- matic and be performed with large caliber cannulae. Short compression times, slow aspiration of the sample and com- plete filling along with multiple light swirling for the quick and complete distribution of the anticoagulant are necessary to avoid in vitro activation and aggregate creation. Sample transport Transport to the laboratory must be speedy and an analysis should be performed within 1 to 3 hours. Unrefrigerated transports at room temperature must be monitored. Various pneumatic tube systems can affect pla- telet function and in cases of unusual functional findings a control following non-mechanized transport is advisable [12]. Blood collection regularly results in a release of ADP, so that testing must not take place immediately after sample collection. Further sample processing Most functional tests are per- formed in platelet-rich plasma that is obtained through centri- fugation of citrated whole blood at 100 ´ g for 20 minutes. Laboratory-diagnostic procedures and interpretation of results Blood count and microscopic differentiation A multitude of thrombocytopathies are characterized by a si- multaneous thrombocytopenia or an occurrence of macro- platelets or a platelet anisocytosis in the peripheral blood smear (e.g. MYH9-associated diseases such as May Hegglin anomaliy, Epstein, Fechtner and Sebastian platelet syndrome, BSS and WAS). A pronounced anisocytosis may require an optic or flow cytometric determination to obtain the correct platelet count. Other diseases such as GT typically are ac- companied by unremarkable platelet counts. With α-storage pool diseases the color of platelets appears reduced or gray (gray platelet syndrome) in the May-Grünwald-Giemsa stain because of the deficient α-granules. Changes in the electron- dense granules (dense bodies) cannot be recognized by light- optical microscope. With other thrombocytopathies (e.g. MYH9-associated forms) it is possible to identify deposits of non-muscular myo- sin as inclusion bodies in neutrophilic granulocytes. Last but not least is the necessity of performing a differential blood count for clarifying a possible underlying hematologic dis- ease. Aggregation diagnostics – PFA-100 (Table 2) The PFA-100 system (Platelet Function Analyzer by Sie- mens) was designed as a measuring instrument for standar- dized testing of bleeding time, i.e. in vitro bleeding time [10, 13]. The closure time of a capillary coated with the activators collagen/ADP or collagen/epinephrine is deter- mined with the use of citrate-anticoagulated whole blood. An activation or aggregation of the platelets takes place un- der conditions of shear stress for adaptating to the in vivo situation and after a variable period of time leads to capil- lary closure. Table 2 Systematic characteristic values PFA-100. Advantages Disadvantages Whole blood system with shear stress Low specificity for thromobocytopathies High negative predictive value for severe defects Requires further diagnostics Good standardization Moderate sensitivity with storage defects Requires only small sample volume Influenced by platelet number and hematocrit Requires little time and personnel High costs of analysis 4 Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update With the help of the PFA-100 and within the framework of clinical studies a pathologic platelet function could be de- termined in nearly all patients with the marked clinical pic- ture of BSS or GT [10]. Typically both closure times are pro- longed with these severe glycoprotein defects. With milder functional impairments different studies partially resulted in very variable sensitivities for both closure times. Sensitivities of only 20 to 80% could be demonstrated in various storage pool diseases [10]. Prolonged closure times frequently occur in patients with liver diseases or uremia. However, it remains largely unclear to what extent this represents a clinical effec- tive platelet dysfunction. Any effects of medication must be taken into account when interpreting the results. COX-inhibiting therapies (e.g. ASS) typically induce a prolongation of the epinephrine-mediated closure time, ADP-antagonizing medications like clopidogrel sometimes can lead to a variable prolongation of the ADP- mediated closure time. GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors induce a prolon- gation of both closure times. The procedure cannot be used in patients with a platelet count of <150 or >500 exp9/l or a he- matocrit <0.35 or >0.50, since this can result in pathologic findings independent of the platelet function. Based on the partially very variable sensitivities for differ- ent thrombocytopathies unremarkable findings in the PFA- 100 system cannot rule out the presence of a thrombocytopa- thy. Characteristic values for this method in the clarification of thrombocytopathy are shown in Table 2. Light transmission aggregometry (Born method) (Tables 3 and 4) The method according to Born makes use of platelet-rich plasma and is based on light transmission aggregometry. After inducing aggregation by means of various activators (collagen, ADP, epinephrine, arachidonic acid, thrombin, ris- tocetin), the change and quantity of light transmittance of the charge is captured over time and evaluated via spectometry. Evaluation is primarily aimed at the maximum amount of ag- gregation that can be triggered ( “second wave”). With the help of the aggregation curves the “first wave”, which shows the shape change in the thrombocytic activation, and the curves ’ gradients are optically evaluated as the measure for the intensity of the thrombocytic amplification. Aggrego- metric patterns for the different thrombocytopathies are shown in Table 3. Born aggregometry was established primarily for mapping severe glycoprotein defects such as BSS or GT and for this purpose it possesses high sensitivity. The method has not been entirely validated for diagnosing secretion or enzyme defects. Additionally the interpretation of minor dysfunctions is complicated by the high inter-individual variability of healthy or clinically unremarkable persons [14]. Besides the clarification of severe glycoprotein defects the use of low concentrations of the activator ristocetin (0.5 mg/mL) makes the differential diagnostic clarification of a type 2B von Will- ebrand syndrome possible. Medications like ASS or clopidogrel affect the signaling pathways tested in aggregometry. GPIIb/IIIa inhibitors typi- cally lead to a complete inhibition of aggregation in the pre- sence of all activators. In Born aggregometry pathologic findings regularly occur with patients suffering from liver or renal diseases or myeloproliferative syndromes. The reaction to the different activators, however, is very variable, the sen- sitivity and the association with an increased hemorrhagic diathesis is largely unclear. The advantages and limits of this method are shown in Table 4. Table 3 Constellations in light transmission aggregometry with various thrombocytopathies. ADP Collagen Epinephrine Arachidonic acid Ristocetin Bernard-Soulier syndrome N N N N ↓↓↓ COX defect N N- ↓ ↓ ↓-↓↓↓ N ADP receptor defect ↓-↓↓↓ N- ↓ N N N Storage pool diseases N- ↓ N- ↓ N- ↓ N- ↓ N Glanzmann ’s thrombasthenia ↓↓↓ ↓↓↓ ↓↓↓ ↓↓↓ N Uremia N- ↓ N- ↓ N- ↓ N- ↓ N- ↓ Table 4 Systematic characteristic values of light transmission aggregometry. Advantages Disadvantages Many years of experience ( “gold standard”) Non-physiologic test system (platelet-rich plasma) Overall test of primary hemostasis Lack of standardization Differentiation of various thrombocytopathies Variable sensitivities with storage defects High sensitivity with severe defects High inter-individual variability Influenced by number of platelets Requires large volume of blood Highly time-consuming and high personnel costs Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update 5 Impedance aggregometry Impedance aggregometry takes place in whole blood and is based on the electrode-based resistance change at the start of aggregation following activation with various stimulants. This procedure is used for monitoring when platelet aggrega- tion inhibitors are administered. This method ‘s value appears to be equal to that of light transmission aggregometry, although it has hardly been proven in the differential diag- nostic clarification of thrombocytopathies with existing he- morrhagic diathesis. ATP release test and determination of COX-dependent mediators This procedure is based on the luminometric determination of the total content of adenine nucleotides (e.g. ATP) or their release from platelets after activation. Adenine nucleotides are constituents of the δ-granules, whose formation or release within the framework of δ-storage pool defects is typically impaired. Hence this test system is used in the differential diagnostic clarification of these forms of thrombocytopathies. Limiting factors of this procedure are the limited validation of the method with insufficient knowledge regarding sensi- tivities and further laboratory diagnostic characteristic values such as method variability. At present there are no laboratory diagnostic procedures for the evaluation of intra-thrombocy- tic plasmatic constituents (e.g. factor V). It is possible to perform a quantitative determination of associated metabolites like TXA 2 following the activation of platelets in order to clarify enzyme defects of COX or TXAS, which can influence the signal transduction or ampli- fication. The high inter-individual variability and the lack of standardized testing allows only a very limited interpretation. Flow cytometry (Table 5) In the clarification of thrombocytopathies flow cytometry is based mostly on the antibody-mediated quantification of sur- face antigens of the platelet membrane. This method typi- cally identifies the basis expression and the expression fol- lowing thrombocytic activation. It is particularly useful as a confirmative diagnosis with pathologic findings in aggrego- metry. For example, it makes possible a flow cytometric de- tection of receptor defects as with GT (GP Iib/IIIa) or BSS (GPIb VI-X) with evidence of the reduced or absent binding of specific antibodies [15]. Besides its primary use in the quantification of platelet-associated glycoproteins, it also per- mits determination of the factors associated with granules. This makes it possible to determine the expression of P-se- lectin from α-granules after activation of the platelets on their cell surface and to support the diagnosis of an α-storage pool disease. The ATP content as the criterion for a δ-storage pool disease can be detected via the deposit of the fluorescence dye mepacrine with subsequent flow cytometric quantifica- tion. A quantification of surface proteins after thrombocytic activation with specific activators can point to defects within specific signal transduction pathways. Features of this proce- dure are shown in Table 5. Electron microscopy Because of its high resolution capability electron microscopy permits the optical examination of ultrastructures in platelets. It can, for example, detect changes of the cytoskeleton, of thrombocytic granules or membrane components. Genetic diagnostics Gene mutations are known for numerous thrombocytopathic disorders (BSS, GT, δ-storage pool diseases, MYH9-asso- ciated forms) [3, 16]. Because of the multitude of genetic mutations underlying the different hereditary thrombocytopa- thies and the unclear clinical association, genetic diagnostics at present are of minor importance in the clinical classifica- tion. Nevertheless the clarification of molecular causes can contribute substantially to the pathophysiologic understand- ing of platelet dysfunctions. Clinical case presentation Anamnesis Presentation of a 70-year old female patient after intra- and post-interventional bleeding during thyroid puncture. Earlier anamnesis Postoperative bleeding within the framework of a tonsillect- omy, with two births and with tooth extractions. Menorrhoea >7 days, in childhood low grade epistaxis. Family history: recurrent epistaxis on the father ’s side. Laboratory diagnostic clarification • With unremarkable von Willebrand-relevant parameters (Willebrand factor antigen, ristocetin cofactor activity as functional test und factor VIII activity), as well as unre- Table 5 Systematic characteristic values of flow cytometry. Advantages Disadvantages Whole blood system Target-dependent procedure High specificity for glycoprotein defects Poor standardization Analysis of activator-specific reaction patterns is possible High machine costs Requires only small sample volume High personnel costs Not influenced by number of platelets or hematocrit High cost of analysis 6 Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update markable multimer analysis no indication of von Wille- brand syndrome. • With unremarkable overall testing (aPTT, Quick) and factor XIII in the reference range no indication of any existing factor deficiencies. With unremarkable reptilase clotting time no indication for a dysfibrinogenemia. • Unremarkable blood count, no thrombocytopenia, platelets morphologically unremarkable. • Nothing remarkable in platelet function diagnostic (PFA- 100 and Born aggregometry). Repeated medical check-up • Minor reduction of arachidonic acid-induced aggregation (51%, normal: >70%) without taking ASS or NSAR. Pro- longed epinephrine- mediated closure time in the PFA-100 (213 sec, normal: 84 – 160 sec). • The subsequently arranged examination of thrombocytic release reaction resulted in a reduction of collagen- and thrombin-induced ATP secretion (collagen 2.8 nmol/exp 9 PLT, normal: >7 nmol/exp 9 ; thrombin 5.8 nmol/exp 9 PLT, normal: 13 – 40 nmol/exp 9 ). Diagnosis and summary The controlled findings constellation in connection with the anamnestic bleeding background is indicative of a δ-storage pool disease. This clinical case illustrates the large clinical and laboratory-diagnostic variability with an initially unre- markable constellation. Summary and outlook Thrombocytopathies are disorders of the primary hemostasis with very variable clinical expression. Together with a de- tailed anamnesis basic diagnostics consisting of a hematolo- gic and a microscopic examination as well as platelet aggre- gation tests (PFA-100, LTA) lead to a tentative diagnosis. Important methods in the further differentiation and charac- terization are flow cytometry, release measurements and ge- netic procedures. In the future genetic analyses and the use of mass-spectrometric processes for testing thrombocytic proteins, lipids or mediators could considerably expand the diagnostic repertoire. References 1. Ho SJ, Gemmell R, Brighton TA. Platelet function testing in uraemic patients. Hematology 2008;13:49 –58. 2. Blonski W, Siropaides T, and Reddy KR. Coagulopathy in liver disease. Curr Treat Options Gastroenterol 2007;10:464 –73. 3. Streif W, Knofler R, Eberl W. Inherited disorders of platelet function in pediatric clinical practice: a diagnostic challenge. Klin Padiatr 2010;222:203 –8. 4. Sandrock K, Zieger B. Current strategies in diagnosis of inherited storage pool defects. Transfus Med Hemother 2010;37:248 –58. 5. Simon D, Kunicki T, Nugent D. Platelet function defects. Hae- mophilia 2008;14:1240 –9. 6. Althaus K, Greinacher A. 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Hamostaseologie 2010;30: 217 –229. 14. Budde U. Diagnose von Funktionsstörungen der Thrombozyten mit Hilfe der Aggregometrie/Diagnosis of Platelet Function De- fects with Platelet Aggregometers. LaboratoriumsMedizin, 2005;26:564 –571. 15. Miller JL. Glycoprotein analysis for the diagnostic evaluation of platelet disorders. Semin Thromb Hemost, 2009;35:224 –32. 16. Nurden AT, Fiore M, Pillois X, Nurden P. Genetic testing in the diagnostic evaluation of inherited platelet disorders. Semin Thromb Hemost, 2009;35:204 –12. Drogies et al.: Thrombocytopathy: an update 7 Download 141.88 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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