Emergence of the doctor’s and master’s degrees and the licentiate
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Doctorate |
Doctorate's Diploma | |||||||||||
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Master |
Universities |
Écoles supérieures |
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General |
Medical and Paramedical |
Accounting |
Art |
Business |
Engineering |
Military |
Public Affairs |
Veterinary Science |
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Master's Diploma diplôme d'études approfondies diplôme d'études supérieures spécialisées (both diplomas phased out and no longer delivered) |
diplôme de formation approfondie (Medicine, Midwifery, Odontology, Pharmacy) |
diplôme supérieur de comptabilité et de gestion[43] |
Architect State Diploma[44] diplôme national supérieur d'arts plastiques[45] Diploma of the École nationale supérieure des arts décoratifs[46] diplôme national supérieur d'expression plastique[47] Graduate diplomas of the conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris[48] |
Diplomas of the université Paris-Dauphine[49] Diplomas of some Business Schools[50] |
Engineer's degree diplôme de management et contrôle du trafic aérien and diplôme d’ingénierie des systèmes électroniques de la sécurité aérienne of the école nationale de l'aviation civile[51][52] |
Diploma of the école spéciale militaire de Saint-Cyr[53] |
Diploma of an Institut d'études politiques |
diplôme d’études fondamentales vétérinaires[54] |
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Licence |
Licenciate's Diploma |
diplôme de formation générale (Medicine, Midwifery, Odontology, Pharmacy)[55] Nurse State Diploma Ergotherapist State Diploma[56] |
diplôme de comptabilité et de gestion[57] |
diplôme d’études en architecture[58] Undergraduate diplomas of the conservatoire national supérieur de musique et de danse de Paris |
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Diploma of the école militaire interarmes[59] |
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Baccalaureate |
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The French national education system makes a distinction between a diplôme national ("national degree") and diplôme universitaire ("university degree"). The former, which are considered higher status, are controlled by the state and issued by universities on behalf of the responsible ministry; the latter are controlled and granted by the universities themselves.[60] Additionally, private providers may be recognised by the state and then, after five years of recognition, have their degrees validated by the state, the validation having to be renewed every six years.[61] Historically, academic degrees were orientated towards research and the vocational education system awarded only diplomas. Since the implementation of the Bologna Process in France, things are going towards a simplification: schools continue to deliver their own diplomas, but the State recognition and degree awarding is far more ranged than before. Diploma courses such as the Technological University Diploma (diplôme universitaire de technologie; DUT) and the Technologist's Certificate (brevet de technician supérieur; BTS) are now recognised as "short cycle" qualifications worth 120 ECTS credits, allowing progression from these to academic qualifications.[62] Nonetheless, there are diplomas in France with no degree recognition, e.g. specific diplomas designed by various institutions with no recognition from the Ministry of Education, such as the mastère spécialisé[63] or the Sciences Po Bachelor.
The recognised degrees fall in three levels, following the Qualifications Framework of the European Higher Education Area. These are the licence (first cycle), master (second cycle) and doctorat (third cycle). All licence degrees are 3 years (180 ECTS credits) in length and all master's degrees are 2 years (120 ECTS credits) in length. There are also 5 year (300 ECTS credits) engineer's degrees, which are master's degree. In addition to the doctorate, which is always a research degree, the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur en médicine and the Diplôme d'Etat de docteur vétérinaire are also considered third cycle qualifications.[64]
Germany[edit]
Traditionally in Germany, students graduated after four to six years either with a Magister degree in Social Sciences, Humanities, Linguistics and the Arts or with a Diplom degree in Natural Sciences, Economics, Business Administration, Political Science, Sociology, Theology and Engineering. Those degrees were the first and at the same time highest non-PhD/Doctorate-title in many disciplines before its gradual replacement by other Anglo-Saxon-inspired master's and bachelor's degrees under the Bologna process. The Magister and Diplom awarded by universities, both of which require a final thesis, are considered equivalent to a master's degree, although the Diplom awarded by a Fachhochschule (university of applied sciences) is at bachelor's degree level.[65]
A special kind of examination is the Staatsexamen (State Examination). It is not an academic degree but a government licensing examination that future doctors, dentists, teachers, lawyers (solicitors), judges, public prosecutors, patent attorneys and pharmacists have to pass in order to be eligible to work in their profession. Students usually study at university for three to six year, depending on the field, before they take the first Staatsexamen. While this is normally at master's level, a few courses (e.g. primary and lower secondary level teaching), which have a standard study period of three years, are assigned to bachelor's level.[66] After the first Staatsexamen, teachers and lawyers go through a form of pupillage, the Vorbereitungsdienst, for two years, before they are able to take the second Staatsexamen, which tests their practical abilities in their jobs.[65] At some institutions pharmacists and jurists can choose whether to be awarded the first Staatsexamen or a master's degree (or formerly the Diplom).
Since 1999, the traditional degrees have been replaced by bachelor's (Bachelor) and master's (Master) degrees as part of the Bologna process. The main reasons for this change are to make degrees internationally comparable and to introduce degrees to the German system which take less time to complete (German students typically took five years or more to earn a Magister or Diplom). Some universities were initially resistant to this change, considering it a displacement of a venerable tradition for the pure sake of globalization. However, universities had to fulfill the new standard by the end of 2007. Enrollment into Diplom and Magister programs is no longer possible. However, programs leading to Staatsexamen did usually not make the transition to Bologna degrees.
Doctorates are issued with various designations, depending on the faculty: e.g., Doktor der Naturwissenschaften (Doctor of Natural Science); Doktor der Rechtswissenschaften (Doctor of Law); Doktor der Medizin (Doctor of Medicine); Doktor der Philosophie (Doctor of Philosophy), to name just a few. Multiple doctorates and honorary doctorates are often listed and even used in forms of address in German-speaking countries. A Diplom, Magister, Master's or Staatsexamen student can proceed to a doctorate. Well qualified bachelor's graduates can also enrol directly into PhD programs after a procedure to determine their aptitude administered by the admitting university.[67] The doctoral degree (e.g., Dr. rer. nat., Dr. phil. and others) is the highest academic degree in Germany and generally a research degree. The degree Dr. med. for medical doctors has to be viewed differently; medical students usually write their doctoral theses right after they have completed studies, without any previous conducted scientific research, just as students in other disciplines write a Diplom, Magister or Master's thesis.[citation needed] Higher doctorates, such as the D.Sc. degree in the UK, are not present in the German system.
However, sometimes incorrectly regarded as a degree, the Habilitation is a higher academic qualification in Germany, Austria and Switzerland that allows further teaching and research endorsement after a doctorate. It is earned by writing a second thesis (the Habilitationsschrift) or presenting a portfolio of first-author publications in an advanced topic. The exact requirements for satisfying a Habilitation depend on individual universities. The "habil.", as it is abbreviated to represent that a habilitation has been awarded after the doctorate, was traditionally the conventional qualification for serving at least as a Privatdozent (e.g. "PD Dr. habil.") (senior lecturer) in an academic professorship. Some German universities no longer require the Habilitation, although preference may still be given to applicants who have this credential, for academic posts in the more traditional fields.
Greece[edit]
See also: Higher education in Greece
In Greece access to university is possible after national exams (Panhellenic Exams). The Greek academic degrees are:
Ptychio (EQL Level 6 or bachelor's degree)
Diploma (EQL Level 7 or Integrated master's degree)
Metaptychiako Diploma Eidikefsis (EQL Level 7 or master's degree)
Didaktoriko Diploma (EQL Level 8 or Doctorate)
Ireland[edit]
Ireland operates under a National Framework of Qualifications (NFQ). The school leaving qualification attained by students is called the Leaving Certificate. It is considered Level 4–5 on the framework. This qualification is the traditional route of entry into third level education. There are also Level 5 qualifications in certain vocational subjects (e.g. Level 5 Certificate in Restaurant Operations) awarded by the Further Education and Training Awards Council (FETAC). Advanced Certificates at level 6 are also awarded by FETAC.
The Higher Education and Training Awards Council (HETAC) award the following: A higher certificate at Level 6; An ordinary bachelor's degree at Level 7; An honours bachelor's degree or higher diploma at Level 8; A master's degree or postgraduate diploma at Level 9; A doctoral degree or higher doctorate at level 10.[68] These are completed in institutes of technology or universities.
Italy[edit]
See also: Higher education in Italy
In Italy access to university is possible after gaining the Diploma di Maturità at 19 years of age, following 5 years of study in a specific high school focused on certain subjects (e.g. liceo classico focused on classical subjects, including philosophy, ancient Greek and Latin; liceo scientifico focused on scientific subjects such as Maths, Chemistry, Biology and Physics but also including philosophy, ancient Latin and Italian Literature; liceo linguistico focused on Foreign Languages and Literature; istituto tecnico focused on practical and theoretical subjects such as Mechanics, Aerospace, Shipbuilding, Electronics, Computer science, Telecommunications, Chemistry, Biology, Fashion industry, Food industry, Building technology, Law and Economy).
After gaining the diploma one can enter university and enrol in any curriculum (e.g. physics, medicine, chemistry, engineering, architecture): all high school diplomas allow access to any university curriculum, although most universities have pre-admission tests.
In 2011, Italy introduced a qualifications framework, known as the Quadro dei Titoli Italiani (QTI), tied to the three cycles of the Bologna Process. This tied together in a three-level system both the new qualifications introduced as part of the Bologna process and the older, pre-Bologna qualifications and covers qualifications from university institutions and higher education institutions for fine arts, music and dance (AFAM institutions).[69] In addition to academic degrees, many professional qualifications are tied to the QTI at the different levels.[70]
The first level, tied to the first cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the laurea (bachelor's degree) in universities and the Diploma accademico di primo livello in AFAM institutions.[71] The older qualifications mapped to this level are the Diploma universitario and the Diploma di scuole dirette a fini speciali (SDAFS) from universities and the Diploma di Conservatorio, Diploma di Istituto Musicale Pareggiato, Diploma dell'Accademia di Belle Arti, Diploma dell'Istituto Superiore delle Industrie Artistiche (ISIA), Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Danza and Diploma dell'Accademia Nazionale di Arte Drammatica from AFAM institutions.[72] The laurea is obtained after three years of study (180 ECTS credits) and gives the academic title of dottore;[71] the older university qualifications at this level took two to three years, with three year courses granting the title of dottore.[72]
The second level, tied to the second cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica in university institutions and the Diploma accademico di secondo livello in AFAM institutions.[71] The old Diploma di laurea is mapped to this level.[72] The Laurea magistrale and the laurea specialistica are obtained after two further years of study (120 ECTS credits) and give the academic title of dottore magistrale.[71] The old Diploma di laurea took four to six years but was accessed directly from school, with a possible reduction by one year for those with a related diploma and also granted the title of dottore magistrale.[72]
The third level, tied to the third cycle of the Bologna Process, covers the Dottorato di ricerca in university institutions and the Diploma accademico di formazione alla ricerca in AFAM institutions.[71] The old Dottorato di ricerca and Diploma di specializzazione are tied to this level.[72] The Dottorato di ricerca, under both new and old systems, takes a minimum of three years after the laurea magistralie/specialistica and gives the academic titles of Dottore di Ricerca (Dott. Ric.) and PhD.[71][72] The old Diploma di specializzazione took two to six years and gave the academic title of Specialista.[72]
Universities in Italy offer a number of other qualifications including the Master universitario di primo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 2nd cycle qualification) and the Master universitario di secondo livello (1 year/60 ECTS credits, 3rd cycle qualification), following on from the laurea and the laurea magistrale/specialistica respectively. These do not give access to the PhD. The Diploma di specializzazione, which is offered in a few specific professions, takes two to six years and gives the title of specialista. The Diploma di perfezionamento is a university certificate, aimed at professional training or in specific study fields, which usually takes one year; it is not allocated a level on the framework.[73]
AFAM institutions may offer Diploma di perfezionamento o Master and Diploma accademico di specializzazione. These are one year and two year qualifications respectively and may be offered at second cycle or third cycle level, distinguished by adding (I) or (II) after the qualification name. Higher Schools for Language Mediators offer the Diploma di mediatore linguistico, a first cycle degree taking three years (180 ECTS credits), which gives access to the laurea specialistica. Specialisation Institutes/Schools in Psychoterapy offer the Diploma di specializzazione in psicoterapia, a third cycle qualification taking at least four years and requiring a laurea magistrale/specialistica in either Psychology or Medicine and Surgery, along with professional registration.[73]
Netherlands[edit]
See also: Education in the Netherlands
In the Netherlands, the structure of academic studies was altered significantly in 1982 when the "Tweefasenstructuur" (Two Phase Structure) was introduced by the Dutch Minister of Education, Wim Deetman. With this two phase structure an attempt was made to standardise all the different studies and structure them to an identical timetable. Additional effect was that students would be persuaded stringently to produce results within a preset time-frame or otherwise discontinue their studies. The two phase structure has been adapted to a bachelor-master structure as a result of the Bologna process.
Admission[edit]
In order for a Dutch student to get access to a university education, the student must complete a six-year pre-university secondary education called "voorbereidend wetenschappelijk onderwijs" (vwo). There are other routes possible, but only if the end level of the applicant is comparable to the two levels is access to university education is granted. For some studies, specific end levels or disciplines are required, e.g., graduating without physics, biology and chemistry will make it impossible to study medicine. People 21 years old or older who do not have the required entrance diplomas may opt for an entrance exam for being admitted to a higher education curriculum. In this exam, they have to prove their command of disciplines considered necessary for pursuing such study. After September 1, 2002 they would be thus admitted to a Bachelor's curriculum, not to a Master's curriculum.
For some studies[74][75] in the Netherlands, a governmental determined limited access is in place (although under political review for abolishment, February 2011).[76] This is a limitation of the number of applicants to a specific study, thus trying to control the eventual number of graduates. The most renowned studies for their numerus clausus are medicine and dentistry. Every year a combination of the highest pre-university graduation grades and some additional conditions determine who can start such a numerus clausus study and who can not.
Almost all Dutch universities are government supported universities, with only very few privately owned universities in existence (i.e. one in business and all others in theology). Leiden University is the oldest, founded in 1575.
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