Emergence of the doctor’s and master’s degrees and the licentiate

Czech Republic[edit]

The Czech Republic implemented the Bologna process so there are basically three degrees: Bachelor (3 years), Master (2 years after Bachelor) and Doctor (4 years after Master).

There are also voluntary academic titles called "small doctorates" (e.g. RNDr. for natural sciences, PhDr. for philosophy, JUDr. for law etc.) achieved after rigorosum exam. Medical students don't get bachelor's or master's degrees, instead they study six years and after obligatory rigorous exam they get title MUDr. (equivalent to MD degree)^{[clarification needed]} or MDDr. for dentists or MVDr. for veterinary physicians. They can also get "big doctorate" (Ph.D.) after another three or (more often) four years of studies.

Bachelor's degrees, master's degrees and small doctorates in the form of shortcuts (Bc., Mgr., Ing., ...) are listed before the person's name; a Doctor's degree (Ph.D.) is listed after name (e.g. MUDr. Jan Novák, Ph.D.). There are more degrees that used to be awarded, but you can still encounter them. Czechs are very proud of their academic degrees and titles therefore its omission is considered disrespectful.^{[clarification needed]}

Denmark[edit]

See also: Bologna process

Before the adaptation to international standards, the lowest degree that would normally be studied at universities in Denmark was equivalent to a master's degree (kandidatgrad). Officially, bachelor's degrees was always obtained after 3 years' university studies.

Various medium-length (2–4 years) professional degrees have been adapted so they now have status as professional bachelor's degrees of varying length and opposed to academic bachelor's degrees they are considered to be "applied" degrees. A professional bachelor's degree is 180 or 210 or 240 ECTS-points.^[40]

The academic degrees available at universities are:^[40]

• 
  bachelor i  (bachelor's degree = 180 ECTS-points)
  
• 
  cand.  (master's degree = 120 ECTS-points, except Medicine, which is 180 ECTS-points and Veterinary Medicine, which is 150 ECTS-points)
  
• 
  ph.d. (PhD degree = normally 180 ECTS-points)
  
• 
  dr.  (higher doctoral degree = normally after a minimum of 5 years of individual and original research)
  

Finland[edit]

Historically, the Finnish higher education system is derived from the German system. The current system of higher education comprises two types of higher education institutions, the universities and the polytechnics, many of whom refer to themselves as universities of applied sciences (UAS)^[41][42] With the exception of few fields such as medicine and dentistry, the Finnish system of higher education degrees is in compliance with the Bologna process. Universities award bachelor's degrees (kandidaatti / kandidat), Master's degrees (maisteri / magister) and doctoral degrees (lisensiaatin tutkinto / licentiat examen and tohtorin tutkinto / doktorexamen). In most fields the system of doctoral degrees is two-tier, the degree of licentiate is an independent academic degree but completing the degree of doctor does not require completion of a licentiate degree. The polytechnics (universities of applied sciences) have the right to award bachelor's and master's degrees; the degree titles are distinct from the titles used for university degrees.

In general, students who are admitted to bachelor studies at a university have the right to continue to studies at master level. At polytechnics, the right to continue to master-level studies has to be applied for separately and there is also a work experience requirement. The majority of master's degree holders have graduated from university.

The degrees awarded by the universities and polytechnics are at par by law, but the content and orientation of studies is different. A master's degree obtained at a polytechnic gives the same academic right to continue studies at doctoral level as a master's degree obtained at a university.

France[edit]