Environmental Management: Principles and practice

Less hazardous pollution and waste
A lot of ‘less hazardous’ waste is sent to shallow landfill. Choice and supervision of
these sites has become more strict in recent years, at least in developed countries. In
developing countries controls are still often lax. Suitable landfill sites are getting
difficult to find in many countries and their selection must be integrated into land-
use planning (Clark et al., 1992). With disposal at sea increasingly outlawed, the
alternatives are composting, recycling and incineration. Landfill is widely used to
cope with sewage sludge, domestic refuse and agricultural wastes. Leachate control
is better planned for newer landfill sites. However, there are many old sites where
contamination is likely to remain a problem for decades: the nature of the compounds
involved is uncertain and retrospective treatment is difficult. Switzerland and Denmark
incinerate a large proportion of their wastes (in 1990 the UK had only four domestic
waste incineration facilities). A problem (discussed earlier) is that ‘less hazardous’
waste may develop into something threatening after burial as packaging, inks, etc.,
decompose, mix, react, and perhaps leach to the groundwater or streams. At present
there is essentially a choice: well-engineered, carefully sited and managed landfill
with the risk of leachate; or incineration with risk of air emissions.
Agricultural pollution and waste
Intensification of agriculture may lead to pollution and waste from agrochemicals,
livestock manure, livestock feedstuffs, crop residue and crop processing. Pollution

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can result from unwise subsidies, farmers’ ignorance, marketing pressures and fears
of crop damage. Those responsible for pollution and waste may not perceive it or
bear the costs and this can hinder remedial measures.