1 The main units of derivational analysis

Semantically prefixes are classified according to the meaning they convey
to the derived word. There are some groups of prefixes:
1. Negative prefixes are prefixes of negative meaning such as: un-, in-, dis-, ir-, im-. E.g.: ungrateful, incorrect, irreligious, immaterial. Prefix in-occurs in different phonetic shapes depending on initial sound of the stem it is affixed to: il- (before [l]), ir- (before [r]), im- (before [p, m]), in- in all other cases, e.g. illegal, irrational, improbable, immobile, inactive.
2. Prefixes denoting reversal of an action such as: un-, re-. E.g.: rewrite, unfasten.
3. Prefixes denoting order and time relation such as: fore-, pre-, post-, over- E.g.: foresee, pre-historic, post-position, overspread.
4. Prefixes denoting locative relation such as: sub-, inter-, trans, super-. E.g.: subway, transformation, superstructure.
5. Prefixes denoting pejoration such as: mis-, pseudo-. E.g.: misprint.
16. Prefixes denoting oppositions such as: contra-, anti-, counter-. E.g.: contradiction, antipode.
Stylistically prefixes may be classified into neutral and coloured.
Neutral prefixes occur in all styles of speech. E.g.: over-, un-, pre-, dis-, sub-, etc.
Coloured prefixes are used only in particular style. E.g.: super- is peculiar to the style of scientific prose.
The degree of productivity is shown by the number of words with this prefix. This is the ability of prefixes to make new words. Productive prefixes can make new words in Modern English. E.g.: un-, in-, re- etc. Unproductive prefixes don’t make new words. E.g.: be-, de-, arch-, co- etc.
Type of base to which prefixes are added. Some prefixes can combine with the stem of only one part of speech.
Denominal prefixes are used only with the stem of nouns: ex-, arch-, dys-, per-. E.g.: ex-president, dysgarmony, archbishop.
Deverbal prefixes are used only with the stem of verb: be-, de-, en-, out-, re. E.g.: rewrite, belong.
Deadjectival prefixes are used only with the stem of adjective: un-, ir-E.g.: uneasy, irregular.
But there are some prefixes which are used with nouns, verbs, adjectives: co-, contra-, mis-, post-, pre-, sub-, over- etc. E.g.: co-operate (verb), co-operation (noun), co-operative (adjective).
Class prefixes form. There are prefixes which can transpose parts of speech but they are much fewer in number. Prefixes which form verbs: be-belittle,befoul, belong; de- : decamp, debus;
en- : enfree, enlarge.
Suffixation is the formation of words with the help of suffixes. Suffixesusually modify the lexical meaning of stems and transfer words to a different part of speech. Chains of suffixes occurring in derived words having two and more suffixal morphemes are sometimes referred to in Lexicography as compound suffixes. Such is the case, for instance, with the suffixes: -ably = -able + -ly (e.g. profitably, unreasonably); -ically = -ic + -al + -ly (e.g. musically, critically); -ation = -ate + -ion (e.g. fascination, isolation) and some others.
There are different classifications of suffixes in linguistic literature, as suffixes may be divided into several groups according to different principles⁶.
The first principle of classification that, one might say, suggests itself, is the part of speech formed. With the scope of the part-of-speech classification suffixes naturally fall into several groups such as:
1) noun-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in nouns (e.g. –er, -dom, -ness, -ation, etc. cf. Teacher, brightness, justification, etc.)
2) adjective-suffixes, i.e. those forming or occurring in adjectives (e.g. –able, -les, -ful, –ic, -ous, etc. cf. Agreeable, careless, doubtful, poetic, courageous)
3) verb-suffixes, (e.g. –en, -fy, -ize, etc. cf. Satisfy, harmonize, etc.)
4) adverb-suffixes (e.g. –ly, -ward, cf. Quickly, eastward, etc.)
A classification of suffixes may also be based on the criterion of sense expressed by the suffix. Proceeding from this principle suffixes are classified into various groups within the bound of a certain part of speech. For instance, noun-suffixes fall into those denoting:
1) the agent of verbal action (e.g., -er, -ant, etc cf. Baker, dancer, defendant).
2) nationality (e.g. –an, -ian, -ese, etc. cf. Arabian, Russian Chinese, etc.).
3) collectivity (e.g. –age, -dom, –ery (-ry), etc. cf. freightage, officialdom, peasantry, etc.).
4) diminutiveness (e.g. –i.e, -let, -ling, etc. cf. Birdie, cloudlet, wolfling, etc.).
The usage of diminutive in English, i.e. words describing small specimen of the things denoted by corresponding primary words is rather restricted. Even those words that are usually called “diminutive” are at the same timeadjectives, i.e. they express the feeling with which the person or thing described is regarded.
The diminutive suffixes: -ling, -let, (-et, -kin), -in, -ette, are not frequent.
The suffix –ling has diminutive force in some names of a young animals: catling, duckling; and young plants: oakling, seedling.
Most personal nouns with the suffix –ling are expressive of law estimation or contempt, e.g. dukeling, kingling.
The suffix -let is more frequently added to names of things than to name of persons. Examples of the former are: booklet, eyelet. Words in –let denoting people, e.g. princelet, kinglet, usually have derogatory meaning, though less strongly than derivatives with the suffix –ling.
The suffix –kin with diminutive or endearing force, is today used only a jocular formative with a depreciative tingle, e.g. lordkin, boykin, etc. The suffix⁷
–ette is the French –ette, e.g. novelette, leaderette – short editorial paragraph; recent American coinages are: kitchenette - miniature kitchen in modern flats.
Suffixes may also be classified into various groups according to a lexical-grammatical character of the stem the suffix is usually added to. Proceeding from this principle one may divide suffixes into:
1) those added to verbal-stems, (e.g. –er, -ing, -ment, -able, etc. cf. Speaker, reading, agreement, suitable, etc.);
2) those added to a noun-stem (e.g. –less, -ish, -ful, -ist, -some, etc. cf. Handless, childish, mouthful, violinist, troublesome, etc);
3) those added to adjective-stem (e.g. –en, -ly, -ish, -ness, etc.cf. Blacken,slowly, reddish, brightness, etc.);
Still another classification of suffixes may be worked out if one examines them from the angle of stylistic reference. Recent research has revealed that derivational affixes, suffixes in particular, are characterized by quite a definite stylistic reference falling into two basic classes: