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cotangent bundle M = T ∗ S has a natural symplectic manifold structure with the symplectic Z-from ω = d l i =1 p i dq i . Remark 10.36 The 2-form ω induces an isomorphism between the tangent space T s S and the cotangent space T ∗ s S to S at any point s ∈ S. Indeed, it is enough to associate with every vector v ∈ T
s S the covector ω(v, ·). If the chosen system of local coordinates (p, q) of T ∗ s
l i =1 dp i ∧ dq i , the representative matrix of the isomorphism is the matrix I given by (10.1). It is possible to construct an atlas of M in which the symplectic 2-form ω has a particularly simple structure (just as in a vector space endowed with a symplectic product, there exists a symplectic basis with respect to which the product takes the standard form (10.16)). T heorem 10.29 (Darboux) Let M be a symplectic manifold. There always exists an atlas of M , called the symplectic atlas, with respect to which the 2-form ω is written as ω = l i
dp i ∧ dq i . For the proof see Abraham and Marsden (1978) or Arnol’d (1978a). In analogy with Definition 10.8 of a completely canonical transformation in R 2l , we have the following. D efinition 10.26 A local coordinate transformation of M is called (completely) canonical if its Jacobian matrix is at every point a symplectic matrix. Remark 10.37 The transformations from one chart to another chart of the symplectic atlas, whose existence is guaranteed by the theorem of Darboux, are automatically canonical transformations. D efinition 10.27 Let g : M → M be a diffeomorphism of a symplectic manifold. Then g is a symplectic diffeomorphism if g ∗ ω = ω. 10.12 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 399 Remark 10.38 The symplectic diffeomorphisms of a symplectic manifold M constitute a subgroup SDiff(M ) of the group Diff(M ) of diffeomorphisms of M . D efinition 10.28 A Hamiltonian dynamical system is the datum of a symplectic manifold M endowed with a 2-form ω and of a function H : M → R, the
Hamiltonian, inducing the Hamilton equations ˙x =
I dH(x), (10.196)
where x = (p, q) ∈ M, and I denotes the isomorphism between the cotangent bundle T ∗ x M and the space tangent to T x M . Remark 10.39 Theorem 3.6 regarding a canonical Hamiltonian flow, together with the previous definitions, guarantees that the one-parameter group of symplectic diffeomorph- isms S
t , solutions of (10.196), is a group of symplectic diffeomorphisms of M , and hence that for every t ∈ R we have (S t
∗ ω = ω.
(10.197) In constrast with the case when M = R 2l , in general it is not true that every one-parameter group of diffeomorphisms is the Hamiltonian flow of a Hamiltonian H : M → R (see Theorem 9.1). Example 11.2 provides a significant counterexample to the extension of Theorem 9.1 to any symplectic manifold. 10.12 Problems
1. Find the conditions ensuring that the linear transformation of R 4 given by ⎛ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ P 1 P 2 Q 1 Q 2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ =
⎛ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ a 11 a 12 a 13 0 a 21 a 22 0 a 24 0 a 32 a 33 0 a 41 0 a 43 0 ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ ⎛ ⎜ ⎜ ⎝ p 1 p 2 q 1 q 2 ⎞ ⎟ ⎟ ⎠ (a) preserves orientation and volume; (b) is symplectic. 2. Let A be a symplectic matrix, A ∈ Sp(l, R). Prove that the characteristic polynomial of A: P A
− λ1) is reciprocal, and hence that it satisfies the condition P A
2l P A (λ −1 ). 400 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 10.12 Deduce that if λ is an eigenvalue of A, λ −1 is also an eigenvalue of A (see Arnol’d 1978b). Analogously prove that the characteristic polynomial of a Hamiltonian matrix is even. 3. Let B be a Hamiltonian matrix and let λ, µ be two of its eigenvalues such that λ + µ = / 0. Prove that the corresponding eigenspaces are I-orthogonal (i.e. if Bv = λv and Bw = µw then v T Iw = 0).
4. Assume that the Hamiltonian matrix B has 2n distinct eigenvalues λ 1 , . . . , λ n , −λ 1 , . . . . . . , −λ n (see Problem 2). Prove that there exists a symplectic matrix S (possibly complex) such that S −1 BS = diag(λ 1 , . . . , λ n ,
1 , . . . , −λ n
5. Prove that a real 2l × 2l matrix P is symmetric, positive definite and symplectic if and only if P = exp(B), where the matrix B is a b b −a , a = a T and b = b T .
7. Find the completely canonical linear transformation which maps the Hamiltonian H = 1 2
1 Q 1 + P 2 Q 2 ) 2 into H = 1 8 (p 2 1 − q 2 1 + p 2 2 − q 2 2 ) 2 . 8. Prove that the transformation q 1 = Q 2 1 − Q
2 2 2 , q 2 = Q 1 Q 2 , p 1 = P 1 Q 1 − P 2 Q 2 Q 2 1 + Q
2 2 , p 2 = P 2 Q 1 + P
1 Q 2 Q 2 1 + Q 2 2 is completely canonical, and check that it transforms the Hamiltonian H = 1/2m(p
2 1 + p 2 2 ) − k/ q 2 1 + q 2 2 to K = 1/2m(Q 2 1 + Q 2 2 )(P 2 1 + P 2 2 − 4mk). 9. Let B and C be two Hamiltonian matrices. Prove that if [B, C] = 0, for every s, t ∈ R, the symplectic matrices e tB and e
sC commute:
e tB e sC = e
tB +sC
= e sC e tB . 10. Let a ∈ R be fixed. Prove that the following transformation of R 2 : x 1 = a − x 2 − x 2 1 , x 2 = x 1 , is invertible and preserves the standard symplectic structure of R 2 . Compute the inverse transformation. 11. Consider the transformation P = P(p) with non-singular Jacobian mat- rix J . How can it be completed to obtain a canonical transformation? (Answer: Q = (J
T ) −1 q.) 10.12 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 401 12. Prove that the transformation P = p 1 + q 2 p 2 , Q = q
1 + q 2 p 2 is completely canonical and find a generating function F (q, P ). (Answer: F (q, P ) = arcsinP q.) Compute all other admissible generating functions. 13. Let P = p α , where α = / 0 is a real parameter. Determine Q as a function of (q, p) in such a way that the transformation (q, p) → (Q, P ) thus obtained is completely canonical and find a generating function for it. (Answer: Q = p 1−α q +
g(p), where g is an arbitrary regular function; F (q, P ) = qP 1/α
+ P 0 ˆ g(P ) dP , where ˆ g(P ) = g(P 1/α ).)
14. Determine the real parameters k, l, m, n such that the transformation P = p
k q l , Q = p
m q n is completely canonical and find all generating functions. (Answer: k = 1 − m,
l = −m, n = 1+m; F 1 (q, Q) =
−m (Q/q) 1/m
with the condition m = 0, F 2 (q, P ) = (1 − m)(qP ) 1/(1−m) if m = 1, F 3 (p, Q) =
−(1 + m)(pQ) 1/(1+m)
with the condition m =
−1 and F 4 (p, P ) = −m (p/P ) 1/m
if m = 0.) 15. Prove that the transformation P = qcotp, Q = log
sin p q is completely canonical. Determine the generating functions F 1 (q, Q) and F 2 (q, P ).
(Answer: F 1 (q, Q) = q arcsin p(qe Q ) + (e
−2Q − q
2 ) 1/2 , F 2 (q, P ) = q arctan (q/P ) + P [1 − 1 2 log(q
2 + P
2 )].)
16. Determine which among the following transformations is canonical (k is a real parameter): Q = q
2 , P = p q , (10.198) Q = tan q, P = (p − k) cos
2 q, (10.199) Q = sin q, P =
p − k
cos q , (10.200) Q = 2qe
t cos p,
P = 2qe
−t sin p,
(10.201) and find the generating functions corresponding to each transformation. 17. Determine the real parameters α, β, γ, δ such that the transformation P 1 = αq 1 + βp 1 , P
2 = γq
2 + δp
2 , Q
1 = p
1 , Q
2 = p
2 is completely canonical. Find a generating function. 402 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 10.12 18. Consider the transformation P = −q − p + q 2 ,
−q 2 − aq q 2 + p.
Find its domain of definition and determine for which values of the real parameter a the transformation is completely canonical. Compute the generating function F (q, P ). (Answer: a = 2, F (q, P ) = qP (q + P ).) 19. Consider the transformation P = −p
q β , Q = γ log p. Determine for which values of the parameters α, β, γ the transformation is completely canonical and compute the generating function F (q, Q). (Answer: α = β = γ = 1, F (q, Q) = qe Q .)
Q = log(1 + √ q cos p), P = 2(1 + √ q cos p) √ q sin p
is completely canonical and find the generating functions. 21. Consider the transformation p = a(e αP
− 1), q = b log(1 + βQ)e −αP (1+βQ) , where a, b, α, β are real parameters. (a) Determine the domain of definition of the transformation, and compute the inverse transformation and its domain. (b) Determine the conditions on the parameters a, b, α, β that ensure that the transformation is completely canonical and compute the generating function F (p, Q). 22. Prove that the completely canonical transformations of R 2 admitting a generating function of the form F (q, P ) = 1 2
2 + 2bqP + cP 2 )
23. Given the transformation p = tan(αP )e δt ,
βQ 1 + (tan(γP )) 2 e
, where α, β, γ, δ, η are real parameters: (a) determine the domain of the transformation, compute the inverse transformation and its domain; (b) determine the conditions on the parameters α, β, γ, δ, η ensuring that the transformation is canonical and compute the generating function F (q, P, t).
10.13 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 403 24. Consider the transformation q = e −t (P Q) α , p = 2e t (P Q)
γ log P
β , where α, β and γ are real positive constants. (a) Determine for which values of α, β and γ the transformation is canonical. (b) If α = 1 2 , compute the generating function F (q, P ). (c) For α = 1 2
−qp transformed? 25. Prove that the transformation q 1
2Q 1 λ 1 cos P
1 + 2Q 2 λ 2 cos P 2 , q 2 = − 2Q 1 λ 1 cos P 1 + 2Q 2 λ 2 cos P 2 , p 1 = 1 2 2Q 1 λ 1 sin P 1 + 1 2 2Q 2 λ 2 sin P 2 , p 2 = − 1 2 2Q 1 λ 1 sin P
1 + 1 2 2Q 2 λ 2 sin P 2 is completely canonical and that it transforms the Hamiltonian H = p 2
+ p 2 2 + 1 8 λ 2 1 (q 1 + q 2 ) 2 + 1 8 λ 2 2 (q 1 + q 2 ) 2 to K = λ 1 Q 1 + λ
2 Q 2 . Use this transformation to find the solution of Hamilton’s equations in the variables (q 1 , q
2 , p
1 , p
2 ). 26. Prove that the transformation q 1 = 1 √ mω 2P 1 sin Q 1 + P
2 , q 2 = 1 √ mω 2P 1 cos Q
1 + Q
2 , p 1 = √ mω 2 2P 1 cos Q
1 − Q
2 , p 2 = √ mω 2 − 2P 1 sin Q
1 + P
2 is completely canonical. 27. Using the method of Lie series, compute the flow associated with the Hamiltonian H(p 1 , p
2 , q
1 , q
2 ) = p
1 q 2 + p n 2 , where n ∈ N.
28. Given two Hamiltonians H and K, prove that e −tD H e −sD K = e
−sD K e −tD H + stD {H,K} + O(3), where O(3) denotes terms of order s 3 , s
2 t, st
2 , t
3 or higher. 29. Prove that the transformation x = [x + y + f (x)]mod(2π), y = y + f (x), where (x, y) ∈ S 1
1 → R is a regular function, preserves the symplectic 2-form dy ∧ dx on the cylinder T ∗ S
= S 1 × R. 404 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 10.13 10.13
Additional remarks and bibliographical notes In this chapter we started the study of the canonical formalism of analytical mechanics. This formalism will prove to be a powerful tool for solving the equations of motion, as we shall see in the next two chapters. Our exposition adopts the viewpoint and general influence of the beautiful book of Arnol’d (1978a), which is to be considered the fundamental reference for any further study. We differ from Arnol’d in the initial definition of the transformations that preserve the canonical structure of Hamilton’s equations, as we prefer to stress the importance of the latter rather than the geometric aspect. Indeed, we believe that to fully appreciate the geometric picture, one needs a good knowledge of the techniques of modern differential geometry, going beyond the scope of the present exposition. Another useful text is the book by Abraham and Marsden (1978), which is encyclopaedic in character. However, Theorems 10.6 and 10.7 indicate that there is a substantial equivalence between the two methods, as they identify the canonical transformations as the natural transformations that leave the canonical structure of Hamilton’s equations invariant. We recommend as supplementary reading, at approximately the same level as the present book, the texts by Cercignani (1976a, 1976b) and Benettin et al. (1991).
The book by Levi-Civita and Amaldi (1927), although quite old, is still very useful for depth and clarity, as well as for the reasonable mathematical level required of the reader. The section on Pfaffian systems (non-singular differential forms) and their use in the canonical formalism is especially recommended. The reading of the text of Gallavotti (1980) is more difficult, but certainly useful, also because of the many interesting problems which stimulate the reader to critically study the material. Another reference text is Meyer and Hall (1992), which adopts from the begin- ning a ‘dynamical systems’ point of view, and considers only transformations that are independent of time. It has not been possible to introduce the study of symplectic geometry and topology, both active research fields with rich interesting results. The most serious consequence is the extreme conciseness of our section on Hamiltonian systems with symmetries, and the lack of a discussion on the so-called reduction of phase space, and hence of the practical use of first integrals in reducing the order of the equations of motion. The book by Arnol’d et al. (1983) is full of examples and applications, although it may be hard to follow as a first reading. The symmetry argument and the so-called ‘momentum map’, which yields a formulation of Noether’s theorem in the more general context of symplectic manifolds, are also discussed in depth in Abraham and Marsden (1978). 10.14 Analytical mechanics: canonical formalism 405 10.14
Additional solved problems Problem 1 Prove that the determinant of a symplectic matrix is equal to +1. Solution
This result can be obtained in various ways. We give here a proof which only uses the definition of a symplectic matrix and an elementary knowledge of linear algebra. Every real m × m invertible matrix A can be uniquely written as the product of a symmetric positive definite matrix and of an orthogonal matrix (polar decomposition): A = P 1
1 = O
2 P 2 , with P
i = P
T i > 0, O T i = O −1 i , i = 1, 2. (10.202) Indeed, note that the matrices AA T and A
T A are both symmetric and pos- itive definite. Then, using the results of Chapter 4, Section 4.10, we set P 1 = √ AA T , P
2 = √ A T A, O 1 = P
−1 1 A, O 2 = AP
−1 2 . It is immediately veri- fied that O 1 and O 2 are orthogonal: for example O Download 10.87 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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