Guide to Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities

G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
145
M o l d o v a
emigration: the migration of individuals out
of a geographic area or country
■ ■ ■  

of a brief war over this secessionist movement from Moldova in
the early 1990s. The area remains plagued with political conflict.
In 1992 Moldova joined the United Nations. In 1994 a new
constitution was formally adopted, establishing the country as a
republic. Moldova is a poor country struggling to maintain a free
market economy. In 2001, when Vladimir Voronin (b. 1941) was
elected, Moldova became the first former Soviet nation to elect
a member of the Communist Party to the position of president
post-independence.
All citizens eighteen years old and older can vote. Political
power in the country is shared among the president, cabinet,
parliament, and judiciary. The president is elected by par-
liament, rather than by popular vote, for four-year terms. To
win, a candidate must receive a clear majority of votes, and
thus political support, from parliament, a unicameral body of
101 members who serve four-year terms. In 2004, President
Voronin as well as a majority of parliament were members of
the Communist Party.
The prime minister is chosen by the president and appointed
on parliamentary approval. The prime minister serves as head of
government and appoints a cabinet, the Council of Ministers,
which must also be approved by the parliament. The government,
led by the Council of Ministers, carries out domestic and foreign
policy for the country. Under this system, the president is the
dominant political figure.
The judicial system is based on a civil law system. A consti-
tutional court reviews government policies to determine and
maintain constitutional consistency. A system of general courts
leads to the Supreme Court, the highest court for nonconstitu-
tional actions. According to the U.S. Department of State, the
political independence of the judicial system is questionable.
Amnesty International has reported cases of human rights
abuses in Moldova, including torture, withholding legal repre-
sentation from political detainees, and the trafficking of women.
Politically motivated arrests, detentions, and disappearances
have also been reported. These and other problems led
Freedom House to rate Moldova as a 3 and 4 on its 7-point scales
for political rights and civil liberties, respectively, and summa-
rized Moldova as a “partly free” nation.
See also: 
Romania; Ukraine.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Fedor, Helen, ed. Belarus and Moldova Country Studies. Lanham, MD: Bernan, 1996.
Freedom House. “Moldova.” Freedom in the World 2004. New York: Freedom House, 2004.
Ͻhttp://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryratings/moldova.htmϾ.
Kort, Michael G. The Handbook of the Former Soviet Union. Brookfield, CT: Millbrook
Press, 1996.
“Moldova.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2005.
Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/md.htmlϾ.
146
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
M o l d o v a
Mt. Balanesti
1,407 ft.
429 m.
B
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a
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S
t e
p
p
e
C
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Bot
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D
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Mouths
of the
Danube
Black
Sea
Balti
Tiraspol
Tighina
Chisinau
Briceni
Soroki
Floreshti
Rybnita
Orhei
Dubásari
Ungheni
Comrat
Cahull
Causenii
Basarabeasca
Leova
Rascani
Falesti
¸
¸
¸
¸
¸
¸
Galati
Tul'chyn
Mohyliv Podol's'kyy
Bacau
Bilhorod
Dnistrovs'kyy
R O M A N I A
U K R A I N E
Moldova
W
S
N
E
MOLDOVA
60 Miles
0
0
60 Kilometers
30
30
(MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP)

U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. “Moldova.”
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices 2003. Washington, DC: U.S. Department
of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://www.state.
gov/g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27854.htm
Ͼ.
Andrea Rogers
Monaco
See
European Microstates.
Mongolia
Mongolia is a landlocked country in central Asia, located between Russia
and China. It is vast and sparsely populated, with a population of 2,751,314
(according to 2004 estimates) living on territory roughly twice the size of Texas.
Until the 1960s, the majority of the population was engaged in traditional
nomadic herding activities, but since then there has been a shift toward urban
centers, in particular the capital of Ulaanbaatar.
B R I E F   H I S T O R Y
Mongolia is best known for its conquests in the thirteenth century under
the tribal leader Genghis Khan (c. 1167–1227), who unified the Mongol tribes in
1206 and led them in a series of conquests that established the largest land
empire the world has ever known. Genghis Khan’s grandson Kublai Khan
(1215–1294) conquered China, and the Mongols were eventually absorbed into
the Chinese system of government. Their empire disintegrated, and Mongolia
was ultimately subjected to rule by China’s Manchu Empire. After the Chinese
Revolution of 1911, a period of turmoil ensued, but eventually an independent
country was established in 1921 as the Mongolian People’s Republic, the world’s
second communist country.
Soviet influence was great, and Mongolia’s leaders followed their Soviet
counterparts for nearly seventy years, with little de facto independence. A sin-
gle political party, the Mongolian People’s Revolutionary Party (MPRP), held a
monopoly on power. The party presided over periods of brutal Stalinist repres-
sion in the 1930s under Horloogiyn Choybalsan (1895–1952) and a long period
of stagnation in the 1970s under Yumjaagiyn Tsedenbal (1916–1991), known as
Mongolia’s Brezhnev—referring to Leonid Brezhnev (1906–1982), who ruled
the Soviet Union from 1964 to 1982.
In 1989, in response to similar events in Eastern Europe, a group of intellectu-
als led a series of protests in the main square of Ulaanbaatar, calling for 
democ-
ratization
, human rights, and market reforms. The MPRP, deciding to reform itself
rather than repress the demonstrators, amended the existing socialist constitution
to allow for multiple parties and a bicameral parliament. The MPRP also appoint-
ed a new head of the party, Punsalmaagiyn Ochirbat (b. 1942), who was subse-
quently elected in a democratic election. In the summer of 1990, elections to the
new parliament led to a multiparty 
coalition
in the lower house of parliament, the
Baga Hural. The reforms also established a constitutional drafting commission,
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
147
M o n g o l i a
democratization: a process by which the
powers of government are moved to the
people of a region or to their elected
representatives
coalition: an alliance, partnership, or union
of disparate peoples or individuals
■ ■ ■  

and within eighteen months a draft was adopted, with some modification, by both
houses of parliament. The new constitution took effect on February 12, 1992,
establishing a democratic form of government.
T H E   G O V E R N M E N T
The 1992 constitution calls for a single unicameral parliament, the State Great
Hural, consisting of seventy-six seats. A directly elected president shares executive
authority with a prime minister, who is appointed by the parliament. The presi-
dent has the power to veto legislation (subject to a 
parliamentary override
) and
also has powers over national security and foreign affairs. This post was held by
Natsagiin Bagabandi (b. 1950) from 1997 to 2005; however, in accordance with the
two-term limit set by the constitution, a new president, Nambaryn Enkhbayar
(b. 1958), was elected in 2005. The prime minister heads the day-to-day manage-
ment of government.
There is a three-level court system, headed by the Supreme Court, which is
responsible for deciding civil, criminal, and administrative cases. In addition,
a nine-member Constitutional Court has the power to review legislation and
government action for conformity with the constitution. However, a decision by
the court that legislation is unconstitutional can be rejected by the parliament,
in which case the full court must hear the case again to uphold the decision.
A major constitutional crisis occurred between 1996 and 2002 after the
Constitutional Court held that members of parliament could not serve as minis-
ters in the government. Parliament subsequently tried to legislate rules that
would allow this, but this legislation was also rejected by the court. Eventually
constitutional amendments were passed, but these too were struck down by the
court. A stalemate ensued, but ultimately the court decided to uphold revised
constitutional amendments.
C I T I Z E N   PA R T I C I PAT I O N ,   R I G H T S ,   A N D   F R E E D O M S
Citizens have a wide range of constitutional freedoms and liberties, including
rights to free speech, freedom of religion, political participation, and protection
of the accused in the criminal justice system. The constitution guarantees the
right to be free from torture and imprisonment. Although claims of outright tor-
ture or abuse are few, human rights groups have criticized conditions in the prison
system as inadequate, particularly for juvenile offenders. There is good access to
the court system, although there are complaints about the quality of the judiciary
and corruption.
Mongolia’s vigorous multiparty democracy has seen alternation in power
between two major 
blocs
: the formerly communist MPRP, which has adjusted its
political program to social democracy, and an array of opposition parties that are
loosely tied together in a democratic coalition. The MPRP has ruled for most of
the democratic period but lost control of parliament for the first time in 1996.
The MPRP regained power with an overwhelming victory in 2000 and held it
until 2004, when the two parties split the parliament. A grand coalition was
formed, and prominent democrat Tsahiagiyn Elbegdorj (b. 1963) selected as
prime minister.
In addition to political parties, citizen participation occurs through a wide
array of organized interest groups, including non-governmental organizations.
Most of these have arisen since 1989 and range from advocacy to providing social
services as their core activities. Several groups monitor the status of human rights
protection and call attention to abuses when they occur. The media also enjoys
148
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
M o n g o l i a
parliamentary override: the ability of a
parliament to override decisions of other
government bodies
■ ■ ■  
bloc: a group of countries or individuals
working toward a common goal, usually
within a convention or other political body

constitutional protection of freedom of the press but in recent years has allegedly
been subject to pressure from the government in the form of moral legislation and
selective tax laws. Still, the press is generally free and citizen participation quite
active. Citizens also participate in local parliaments, called hurals, elected in each
of the eighteen provinces and three major cities of Ulaanbaatar, Darhan, and
Erdenet.
Mongolia’s peaceful transition to democracy beginning in 1990 has been a
model. By any measure, citizen participation is active, with voter turnout in
national elections consistently above 80 percent, and an array of other channels
for participation. It has a more vigorous democracy and better protection of
human rights than any Central Asian country and at least as robust as any coun-
try in East Asia.
See also: 
China; Parliamentary Systems.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Bawden, C. R. The Modern History of Mongolia. New York: Kegan Paul International, 1989.
Kotkin, Stephen and Bruce A. Elleman, eds. Mongolia in the Twentieth Century:
Landlocked Cosmopolitan. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe, 1999.
Weatherford, J. McIver. Genghis Khan and the Making of the Modern World. New York:
Crown, 2004. 
Tom Ginsburg
Montenegro
See
Serbia and Montenegro.
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
149
M o n t e n e g r o
Huyten Pk.
14,350 ft.
4374 m.
Atas Bagd
8,842 ft.
2695 m.
Nemegt Uul
9.081 ft.
2768 m.
M o n g o l i a n
P l a t e a u
A
L
T
A
Y
M
T
S
.
H
A
N
G
A
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N
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U U
G O B I
D E
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R
T
H
I M
A
L
A
Y
A
S
Nel Mongol
(Inner Mongolia)
Badain Jaran Shamo
DA
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GA
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RE
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NU
RU
U
GURVA
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UU
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   Nuur
Bööntsagaan
Nuur
Hulun
Nur
Ozero
Baykal
Dörgön
Nuur
Hövsgöl
Nuur
Gaxun Nur
Ke
rul
en
O n
on
Tu
ul
Selenge
Tesiyn
H
o
vd
D
za
vha
n
O
rh
o
n
Sühbaatar
Kyakhta
Baruun-Urt
Öndörhaan
Buyant-Uhaa
Dalandzadgad
Hohhot
Arvayheer
Ulaan-Uul
Bayanhongor
Tamsagbulag
Altay
Uliastay
Ulaangom
Olgiy
Dund-
Us
Tsetserleg
Bulgan
Mörön
Slyudyanka
Beijing
Ulaanbaatar
Darhan
Choybalsan
Erdenet
R U S S I A
C H I N A
W
S
N
E
Mongolia
MONGOLIA
300 Miles
0
0
300 Kilometers
100
200
100
200
(MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP)

Morocco
Morocco is an example of an Arab country that is in the process of trying to
reform and liberalize its political system. A survey by The Economist magazine in
2004 placed Morocco at the top of “A League Table of Democracy in the Arab
World.” The country, nevertheless, continues to face challenges associated with
poverty, terrorism, and the difficulties of reforming a political system dominated
by a centuries-old hereditary monarchy.
L O C AT I O N   A N D   T E R R I T O R Y
Morocco is located in the far northwest corner of Africa and separated by just
16 kilometers (10 miles) of water from Spain and the European continent. To the
east and south it borders the states of Algeria and Mauritania. Geographically the
country is divided by four main mountainous ranges—the Rif mountains in the far
north, the Middle and High Atlas range across the middle of the country, and the
Anti-Atlas in the south. Between and beyond these mountainous areas there are
significant areas of 
arable land
as well as desert and steppe land. In 2004 Morocco
had an estimated population of 32 million people of mostly Berber and Arab eth-
nic origin. This population is split roughly equally between the rural and urban
areas but with the balance tipping progressively toward the cities and towns.
Morocco also counts as an integral part of its national territory the disputed area
known as the Western Sahara. Formerly controlled by Spain, Morocco’s claim to
the territory is contested by a liberation movement called the Polisario Front. Most
states, including nearly all those in Western Europe and North America, recognize
neither side’s claim but officially await the outcome of a 
referendum
being organ-
ized by the United Nations in the territory. This referendum, however, had not
taken place as of early 2005 because of disagreements about who is entitled to vote.
H I S T O R I C A L   E V O LU T I O N
Morocco has one of the longest histories of any of the states in the Arab world.
Most Moroccans date the establishment of Morocco from 809 when Moulay Idriss
II—the son of Moulay Idriss I, a refugee from the Arabian Peninsula—established
a
proto state
based in the newly founded city of Fez. A relative of the Prophet
Muhammad (c. 570–632)—the founder of the religion of Islam—Moulay Idriss
I arrived in the wake of Arab armies that had reached the region earlier in the cen-
tury bringing the Arabic language as well as the religion of Islam. Moulay Idriss II
expanded his nascent state beyond the environs of Fez to include most of the ter-
ritory of the modern state of Morocco.
Following the Idrissids, a series of royal dynasties rose and fell over the
following centuries until the establishment of the Alawite dynasty in the seven-
teenth century, the descendants of whom still hold the Moroccan throne in the
twenty-first century. From 1912 until 1956 Morocco was under the colonial rule of
both the French and Spanish. The Sultan (later King) Mohammed V (1910–1961)
played a central role in uniting the country in the struggle to win independence
from European control in 1956. Following independence, Mohammed V success-
fully politically out-maneuvered the nationalist Istiqlal (Independence) Party, with
whom he had worked to achieve independence for Morocco, to take full and
effective control of the kingdom. Upon his death in 1961, Mohammed V was suc-
ceeded by his son Hassan II (1929–1999), who ruled the kingdom for thirty-eight
years until his own death in 1999, when he was, in turn, replaced by his son
Mohammed VI (b. 1963).
150
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
M o r o c c o
arable land: land suitable for the growing
of crops
referendum: a popular vote on legislation,
brought before the people by their elected
leaders or public initiative
■ ■ ■  
proto state: an entity that adopts most of
the characteristics of a state but does not
have complete sovereignty, such as an interim
government or the European Union

S O C I O E C O N O M I C   C O N D I T I O N S
Morocco is one of the poorest countries in the Arab world because it pos-
sesses neither oil nor gas. 
Per capita
income per year is estimated at $4,000 on
a
purchasing power parity
index. Cities such as Casablanca and Rabat are mod-
ern and developed, but significant areas of the countryside, where nearly half
the population still live, are very poor, and many rural communities still lack
access to water and electricity. Migration from the rural areas to the cities over
last decades of the twentieth century has led to the development of significant
shanty towns on the edges of cities such as Casablanca.
G O V E R N M E N T   A N D   C O N S T I T U T I O N
Morocco is a constitutional monarchy, which means that the king’s powers are
defined by the constitution. All the constitutions since independence have given
overwhelming power to the person of the king, who serves as the head of state,
the symbol of the nation and the commander of the faithful—a term that recog-
nizes his religious authority owing to his claimed descent from the Prophet
Muhammad. Under the constitution, the king has the power to appoint and
dismiss the prime minister and the cabinet and dissolve the national legislature.
He can also issue his own laws (dahirs) without the approval of the legisla-
ture. Constitutional revisions in the 1990s placed some small, largely symbolic
G O V E R N M E N T S   O F   T H E   W O R L D
151
M o r o c c o