Recent insights into polysaccharide-based hydrogels and their potential applications in food sector: a review
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1.1. Categorization of hydrogels
Hydrogels have gained attention due to their unique qualities, like low cost, water-based components, and biocompatibility. In the future, the user will be increased fields like tissue engineering [27] , drug de- livery and injury dressing [28] , biomedical applications [29] , and food restructuring [30] . Hydrogels have been categorized in a variety of ways based on their attributes. Different characteristics such as preparation protocol, cross-linking, the structure of the functional group, biode- gradability, origin, morphology, physical appearance, and electrical charge ( Table 2 ). Simple mixing, free radical polymerization, solution casting, bulk polymerization, UV and gamma irradiation, and the interpenetrating network creation process are all examples of cross- linking methods. Hydrogels are characterized as cationic, anionic, or neutral based on their ionic charge. The charge on the polymer de- termines the charge on the overall network. Inter-penetrating hydrogels are formed by cross-linking cross-linked polymers without forming a covalent bond between the two polymers [31] . The only way to separate the cross-linked polymers is to break the chemical bonds between the two constituent polymers. The two most common varieties of this type of hydrogel are simultaneous and sequential inter-penetrating hydrogels. Hydrogels are divided further into four types based on their origin: natural, synthetic, which is further divided into hybrid, and semi-natural hydrogels. Natural hydrogels are developed from polysaccharides and proteins like dextran, alginate, and chitosan [32] . Just like the synthetic polymers that are used for hydrogel production, natural polymers (like polysaccharides and proteins) could also be used due to their high safety level and unique properties [33] . Organic polysaccharide hydrogels are biodegradable, have a high-water content, and can integrate with cells. They are an advantageous microenvironment for the differentiation and development of cells, making them very appealing in tissue engineering, biomedical and biorefinery applications [34–36] . Based on the prepa- ration processes, hydrogels are classed as copolymers, homopolymers, semi-interpenetrating networks, and interpenetrating networks. The primary groups that make up the natural polymers used to form hydrogels are i) protein-like scleroprotein, gelatin, soy protein, and seafood protein ii) complex carbohydrates like starch, cellulose, and its types, alginate, guar gum, xanthan gum, and chitosan. Furthermore, microbial cellulose is an intriguing natural element to produce hydro- gels. Microorganisms of the genus such as Agrobacterium, Sarcina, A. Manzoor et al. International Journal of Biological Macromolecules 213 (2022) 987–1006 989 Acetobacter, and Rhizobium help in the production of microbial cellulose [37] . Its unique structure, which is a non-woven fibrous multilayer that can absorb a huge amount of water, is its main feature. Furthermore, due to its unique mechanical features, such as maximum stress potency, high water retentiveness, and biocompatibility, microbial cellulose offers potential applications. Synthetic hydrogels manufactured from poly- acrylamide, poly (acrylic acid), poly (vinyl alcohol), poly(vinyl- pyrrolidone), and poly(ethylene glycol) are used to make a variety of hydrogels and applications [37–41] . Because of their unique qualities, such as being inexpensive, water-based, and biocompatible, hydrogels have gotten a lot of interest. They will be employed in a variety of in- dustries for a long time, including tissue engineering. Hydrogels may provide better avenues for designing effective biopolymer products and packaging materials with desirable quality characteristics. Polysaccharides like pectin, starch, cellulose ethers, alginate, and carrageenan have been utilized for the formation of the film, resulting in compactness, adhesiveness, and firmness, as well as thickening character, while the lipid films may create an anaerobic environment. Different reports exist in recent literature citing the use of hydrogels (developed from polysaccharides) with unique characteristics such as biocompatibility, renewability, and biodegradability, making them important candidates for applications in drug delivery, water pu- rification, and various food applications. Hydrogel development from chitosan, alginate, pectin and starch materials has attracted consider- able research in recent years such as starch-based films with properties of being colorless, bland, odor-free, biologically absorbable, immune to oxygen, as well as semipermeable towards CO 2 find potential applica- tions in food industries [42] . The property of hydrophobicity delivered water barrier characteristics to starch-based films incorporated with lipids coupled with an improvement in air permeation and toughness through chitosan and cellulose addition [43] . Moreover, the intrinsic property of pectin and xanthan gum helps to develop complexes suitable for the generation of gels as sheets, membranes, and coatings. On the other hand, additional globular and versatile polysaccharides like acacia gum produce round shape structures (such as micro-and nano-capsules) through which active substances will be encapsulated and get integrated inside packaging films. 1.1.1. Chitosan-based hydrogels Chitosan is composed of D -glucosamine and randomly dispersed N- acetyl- D -glycosamine groups linked via β-(1–4) bond. Chitosan is a linear polysaccharide having rheological properties based on the degree of deacetylation. The primary benefits of developing hydrogels from chi- tosan are attributed to its biocompatible nature, low production cost, easy to sterile, antimicrobial properties, and controlled degree of deacetylation [44,45] . Chitosan-based hydrogels keep their role vital in controlling overweight coupled with the cholesterol-lowering property through interaction with bile salts, which defines its biochemical sig- nificance in food applications. Moreover, scientists unveiled the role of chitosan hydrogels in preserving fruits and vegetables from microbial spoilage which has witnessed a safe approach approved for human consumption globally [46] . Chitosan improves the formation of bones, however, due to its lack of mechanical attributes it is blended with calcium phosphate or alginate to make it suitable for orthopedic use [47,48] . In food industries, chitosan qualifies for encapsulation and applica- tions in drug delivery attributed to its biocompatibility, physicochem- ical attributes, non-toxicity, and efficient biopolymeric property [49] . Furthermore, chitosan hydrogels are used in carrying out the delivery process of bioactive compounds to their target sites in different food systems due to their auto-accelerating release in the basic medium (in- testines). During the nutrient delivery process, chitosan-based hydrogel performs various functions like protecting sensitive bioactive com- pounds from the hostile food environment, and improving the level of consumption of food products by consumers by masking off the unac- ceptable flavor, which is significant [50] . Chitosan-based hydrogels are earmarked for their role in boosting solubility and stability of various nutrients (lipophilic) thereby preventing them from the undesirable process of oxidation as observed in the study of the development of chitosan-based hydrogel in combination with linseed oil, quercetin, and liposomes [51] . These characteristics of inhibiting the oxidation of oils can be enhanced when a combination of various polysaccharides is used such as chitosan and alginate due to the enhancement of hydrogel sta- bility. The hydrogels obtained from chitosan are modified either by physical or chemical crosslinking as chitosan encompasses dynamic hydroxyl and amino group and therefore yield various chitosan-based hydrogels [52] . Physical modifications include blending of chitosan Download 1.62 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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