Федеральное государственное автономное

Economics means the cost associated with the construction (capital cost) and ongoing maintenance of a coated pipeline. These can be broken down into the following:

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  Material Costs: the costs of the paints and abrasives used.
  
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  Labor Costs: associated with mobilization, surface preparation, coating application, stand-by time etc. Upfront material and labor costs can be lumped together under the term CAPEX (capital expenditure).
  
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  Maintenance Costs: associated with maintaining the coating to a reasonable condition. The frequency of maintenance depends on the quality of the original specification and products used, skill of the applicator, and so on. These costs are sometimes described as OPEX (operating expenses).
  

Improvement in any one of these areas translates into a financial or performance windfall for the asset owner.
Legislation alludes to the greater scrutiny that operators are subjected to, thanks to a greater public awareness of the environmental and safety consequences posed by “uncontrolled hydrocarbon releases.” The Santa Barbara incident in May 2015, where a 24” pipeline failed and released 2934 barrels of heavy crude oil (500 of which went into the Pacific Ocean), is a recent example [24]. This even impacts testing protocols, because the best way to avoid failures is to ensure that the standards are truly representative of operating conditions.
Innovation implies advancements in technology that facilitate new opportunities previously considered unfeasible. For example; FBE coatings beyond
150˚C will allow exploitation of oil reservoirs inaccessible to “older” technologies, which translates into greater national economic output. Some other examples of immediate industry challenges would be the following:

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  Internal coatings resistant to methanol and monoethylene glycol or MEG (used for hydrate prevention) at temperatures above 60C (140F).
  
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  Successful application of FBE onto high strength steel at temperatures, without adversely impacting the metallurgical properties of the pipe.
  
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  External coatings for subsea piping below 2000 m (6560 ft.). That is, lower profile, lower weight, better insulating coatings, resistant to higher pressures.
  
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  Internal coatings for sour gas service (>5 mol% H2S, >8 mol% CO2) with service temperatures higher than 95˚C.
  
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  More rapidly applied or cured GW coatings (powder, liquid or wraps) for offshore or thrustboring applications.
  
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  More resistant and flexible ARO coatings.
  
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  Improvement in PO chemistries and elimination of the adhesive layer in 3LPO applications (direct application of PO onto FBE).
  
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  External coatings with improved adhesion and lower CD values.
  
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  Improved standard testing methodologies that better reflect and predict real-life environments.
  

Other challenges include the growing use of biofuels (e.g., ethanol), which tend to have more moisture absorption and MIC problems. Carbon sequestration means coatings that will have to resist 100% CO₂. Oil sands and shale oil are very viscous, abrasive, and tend to be transported at elevated temperatures. As exploration delves into the Arctic, permafrost and ultra-low temperatures present issues for application and operation of coated lines.