Final report

6.7.4  Health and Safety 
6.7.4.1  Background and Existing Conditions 
The United States Mint has instituted several successful workplace safety programs and policies 
over the past three years the result of which have been injury and illness rates that are below 
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Because metals are not destroyed by sewage treatment processes, amounts of metals and metal category 
compounds reported under the EPCRA TRI program are considered transfers to disposal or other releases. 
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industry standards.  In FY2011, the recordable case rate was 2.74 injuries and illnesses per 100 
full-time workers, an amount that is well below the industry standard of 6.3 per 100 [18]. 
The United States Mint has identified nickel as the only alloy currently used in circulating coins 
that presents a health and safety issue.  Nickel allergy is caused by skin exposure to nickel.  The 
symptoms are redness, swelling, blisters, itching and scaling.  These symptoms are often caused 
by nickel-containing jewelry, watches, buttons and other items, but can also be caused by the 
handling of nickel-containing coins.  In industrialized countries, nickel allergy is estimated to 
affect approximately 17 percent of women and 3 percent of men [19].  Nickel allergic persons 
may develop hand eczema that may become chronic.  Recent research on nickel release and skin 
exposure clearly shows that nickel in coins may result in nickel allergy and hand eczema [19]. 
Those who handle coins professionally and consumers with nickel allergy are at particular risk.  
Prevention of nickel allergy and eczema requires that skin exposure to nickel is avoided or 
minimized. 
At the United States Mint facilities in Denver and Philadelphia, there is an exposure to dust 
containing nickel at the upset mills as well as during the counting and bagging steps.  While both 
of these operations have engineering controls installed to prevent exposure, the United States 
Mint has experienced cases of allergic contact dermatitis that are possibly due to exposure to 
nickel dust.  Engineering controls involve physically changing a machine or work environment 
and are superior to personal protective equipment for protecting worker safety and health. 
6.7.4.2  Legal, Regulatory and Policy Requirements 
Any aspect of the project that creates a potential risk to human health and safety requires 
consideration under NEPA.  This includes occupational hazards to workers as well as the 
exposure of the general public to conditions creating the risk of immediate injury or long-term 
health hazards. 
The primary statute addressing occupational hazards is the Occupational Safety and Health Act 
of 1970 (OSH Act) [20].  Under Section 19 of the OSH Act
150 
and Executive Order 12196 of 
February 26, 1980 [21], entitled Occupational Safety and Health Programs for Federal 
Employees, Federal agencies are generally subject to the requirements of the OSH Act and its 
implementing regulations promulgated by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration 
(OSHA).  While Federal agencies are generally subject to OSHA requirements in the same 
manner as private sector entities, OSHA regulations specific to Federal agencies are found in 40 
CFR Part 1960. 
OSHA has established numerous general standards to protect worker safety and health, including 
those for communicating hazards to employees and for personal protective equipment, as well as 
industry-specific and chemical-specific standards.  Even in areas where OSHA has not set forth a 
standard addressing a specific hazard, employers are responsible for complying with the OSH 
Act’s “general duty” clause, which states that each employer “shall furnish . . . a place of 
employment which is free from recognized hazards that are causing or are likely to cause death 
or serious physical harm to his employees.” 
151 
150 
29 U.S.C. 668. 
151 
OSH Act Section 5(a)(1). 
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Under its Air Contaminants Standards, OSHA has established Permissible Exposure Limits 
(PELs) for hundreds of hazardous substances.  The PELs establish quantitative limits on the 
amount of a given regulated substance that a worker may be exposed to during an 8-hour shift. 
6.7.4.3  Environmental Impacts 
The impacts to worker health and safety as a result of the proposed action, while ultimately 
dependent upon the alloys selected for the various denominations, are generally expected to be 
positive. 
The OSHA PELs for substances in the recommended alloys in particular as well as for the 
potential replacement options for the various denominations compare favorably.  While all of the 
same alloys currently in the nation’s circulating coins are present in one or more replacement 
options, the alloys with the most stringent PELs, copper and nickel, are present in much smaller 
percentages in the replacement options.  The only exception is for recommended alloy 669z for 
the 5-cent coin, which contains a much lower percentage of nickel, but the same percentage of 
copper as the incumbent 5-cent coin.  Tables 6-3 and 6-4 display the OSHA PELs for the alloys 
in the incumbent circulating coins and in the alternative material candidates, respectively. 
Table 6-3. 
OSHA PELs for Alloys in Incumbent Circulating Coins 
Metal Alloy 
OSHA PEL 
Copper (Cu) 
x  Fume (as Cu) 
0.1 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m
3
) 
of air as an 8-hour TWA
1 
x  Dusts and mists (as Cu) 
1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Manganese (Mn) 
x  Manganese compounds (as Mn) 
5 mg/m
3 
as a ceiling limit 
x  Manganese fume (as Mn) 
5 mg/m
3 
as a ceiling limit 
Nickel, metal and insoluble compounds (as Ni) 
1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Zinc 
x  Zinc oxide fume 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
x  Zinc oxide 
o
  Total dust 
15 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
o
  Respirable fraction
2 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
1 
TWA = time-weighted average 
2 
According to OSHA, respirable dust is the fraction of airborne dust that passes a size-selecting device having the 
following characteristics:  2.0 nanometers of dust have a 90% passing selector, 3.5 nanometers have a 50% passing 
selector and 10.0 nanometers of dust have a 0% passing selector. 
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Table 6-4. 
OSHA PELs for Recommended Alloys and Other Alternative Material 
Candidates to Circulating Coins  
Metal Alloy 
OSHA PEL 
Copper (Cu) 
x  Fume (as Cu) 
0.1 milligrams per cubic meter (mg/m
3
) 
of air as an 8-hour TWA
1 
x  Dusts and mists (as Cu) 
1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Manganese (Mn) 
x  Manganese compounds (as Mn) 
5 mg/m
3 
as a ceiling limit 
x  Manganese fume (as Mn) 
5 mg/m
3 
as a ceiling limit 
Nickel, metal and insoluble compounds (as Ni) 
1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Zinc 
x  Zinc oxide fume 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
x  Zinc oxide 
o
  Total dust 
15 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
o
  Respirable fraction
2 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Alternative Material Candidates and Ingredients 
Iron oxide (Fume) 
10 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Tin (Sn) 
x  Metal 
None 
x  Inorganic compounds (except oxides) (as Sn)  2 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
x  Organic compounds (as Sn) 
0.1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Aluminum metal (as Al) 
x  Total dust 
15 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
x  Respirable fraction 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Magnesium oxide fume 
x  Total particulate 
15 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Silicon 
x  Total dust 
15 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
x  Respirable fraction 
5 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Phosphorus (yellow) 
0.1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
Chromium metal and insoluble salts (as Cr) 
1 mg/m
3 
as an 8-hour TWA 
1 
TWA = time-weighted average 
2 
According to OSHA, respirable dust is the fraction of airborne dust that passes a size-selecting device having the 
following characteristics:  2.0 nanometers of dust have a 90% passing selector, 3.5 nanometers have a 50% passing 
selector and 10.0 nanometers of dust have a 0% passing selector. 
Of the alloys used in the incumbent circulating coins, nickel is the only one identified by the 
United States Mint as a potential health and safety concern.  The incumbent 5-cent coin is 25 
percent nickel, while the incumbent dime, quarter dollar and half dollar coins are 8.33% nickel.  
There is no nickel in the one-cent coin.  The concern is based on previous cases of allergic 
contact dermatitis that are possibly due to exposure to nickel dust at the upset mills as well as 
during the counting and bagging steps.  Under the proposed action, the recommended alloys 
identified for the 5-cent coin involve significantly less nickel than what is found in the 
incumbent coin.  For example, the unplated 31157 option contains only 0.5% nickel and the 669z 
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option only 5% nickel; both replacing it instead with less harmful alloys such as zinc and 
manganese.  Other alternative material candidates for the 5-cent coin have either less nickel or, 
in the case of Dura-White-plated zinc, which uses tin and copper on zinc, eliminate nickel 
entirely. 
For the dime, quarter dollar and half dollar coins, the recommended alloys—G6 mod-clad C110 
and 669z-clad C110— have a total nickel content that is at least 60% less than the incumbent 
coins.  G6 mod-clad C110 offers a reduction in the total amount of nickel from 8.33% to 3.33%, 
while 669z-clad C110 would consist of only 1.66% total nickel.  On the other hand, 302HQ 
stainless steel has a slightly higher percentage of total nickel (at approximately 9%) than the 
incumbent coins of the same denomination. 
Unlike the recommended alloys or other potential options, certain non-metal ingredients— 
silicon, sulfur and phosphorus—are present in 302HQ stainless steel.  The presence of these 
constituents, particularly phosphorus due to its low PEL, may require the United States Mint to 
conduct testing to determine employee exposure levels; the result of which could be the need for 
additional engineering controls or personal protective equipment to reduce exposure.  Note also 
that chromium is present in the 302HQ stainless steel option for the 5-cent, dime, quarter dollar 
and half dollar coins.  The form of chromium present, however, is ferrochromium, which is the 
chromium(0) form used for making steel.  Hexavalent and trivalent chromium, chromium(VI) 
and chromium(III), respectively, are used for chrome plating and are much more strictly 
regulated not only by OSHA, but by the US EPA and certain states.  The inclusion of 
chromium(0) in the 302HQ stainless steel option, while different from incumbent alloys, is not 
anticipated to create additional health and safety risks.  But, again, additional employee exposure 
testing may be necessary.  In any event, the 302HQ stainless steel option is not currently 
recommended under the proposed action.  However, additional research, development and 
optimization of 302HQ stainless steel could allow for its future use in US circulating coinage. 
6.7.5  Tr anspor tation 
6.7.5.1  Background and Existing Conditions 
Transportation refers to the use of roads as affected by the proposed action.  The United States 
Mints in Denver and Philadelphia regularly receive shipments of raw materials for coins, both 
planchets and coiled strip, weighing substantial amounts.  In addition, the United States Mint 
facilities in both cities ship large quantities of metal scrap for recycling.  Neither shipment is 
considered to be hazardous. 
In 2010, the United States Mint in Philadelphia sent over 1.7M kg (3.8M lb) of scrap metal, such 
as copper, nickel and manganese, for recycling.  In the same year, the United States Mint in 
Denver shipped nearly 1.8M kg (4M lb) of scrap metal for recycling.  In addition, in FY2011, the 
United States Mint shipped 7.4B circulating coins, an increase from FY2009 when only 5.2B 
coins were shipped, but far less than the FY2000 peak of 27B circulating coins shipped. 
6.7.5.2  Legal, Regulatory and Policy Requirements 
The transportation of heavy materials is subject to Department of Transportation (DOT) 
requirements and to federal, state and local regulation of weights on public roads.  The 
regulations of the Federal Motor Carrier Safety Administration, a division of DOT, apply to the 
shipping company and not to the entity receiving or offering shipments.  In addition, the supplies 
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of metal alloys for coining, the circulating coins, and the metal scrap generated by the coining 
process are not considered to be hazardous under the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety 
Administration’s (PHMSA’s) Hazardous Materials Regulations (HMRs) that govern shipments 
of hazardous substances. 
6.7.5.3  Environmental Impacts 
Any environmental impacts related to transportation anticipated from the proposed action are 
expected to be insignificant, but if anything, will be positive based on a potential reduction in 
weight of the raw materials, circulating coins and scrap metal.  As shipments of the metal alloys 
for coin making, new circulating coins and the metal scrap generated by the coining process are 
not considered to be hazardous under PHMSA’s HMR, there are no environmental consequences 
from a hazardous materials transport standpoint that would result from the proposed action. 
The low density of metals such as magnesium and aluminum alloys potentially identified for the 
one-cent coin is an advantage from a transportation standpoint compared to the incumbent zinc-
based one-cent coin.  The lighter-weight coins would result in less fuel usage and therefore 
would be less expensive to transport in large quantities. 
Although an aluminum one-cent coin is currently the lowest-weight and lowest-cost option from 
a transportation point of view, the coin-processing industry has raised major objections based on 
the lower density of aluminum and its higher probability of jamming coin-processing equipment 
and potentially permanently damaging high-speed coin-sorting and counting equipment.  
Consequently, an aluminum one-cent coin, while potentially viable in the future, is presently not 
recommended under the proposed action. 
Because the weights of the other potential replacement alloys for the 5-cent, dime, quarter dollar 
and half dollar coins are all comparable to the incumbent circulating coins of the same 
denomination, no significant impacts to transportation are expected from the proposed action. 
6.7.6  Ener gy Use 
6.7.6.1  Background and Existing Conditions 
Coin production can be a relatively energy intensive effort, relying as it does on sizeable and 
powerful coining machinery and furnaces.  The United States Mints at Denver and Philadelphia 
must use significant amounts of electricity and steam to successfully manufacture the various 
coin denominations.  Paying for that electricity and steam is an obvious and substantial cost 
burden and any efforts to reduce that burden through the introduction of more sustainable 
practices and coin materials could represent not only a significant cost savings, but a positive 
environmental benefit as well. 
The United States Mint has begun to incorporate sustainability into its operations and culture, per 
EO 13514, the Department of the Treasury’s Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan and other 
legal drivers.  Sustainability projects that reduce the United States Mint’s energy use during coin 
production should result in a corresponding reduction in costs. 
The United States Mint facilities in both Denver and Philadelphia recently went to two shifts per 
day instead of three shifts per day.  This plan went into effect in June 2012 and will allow 
production to be shut down completely from Friday through Sunday, saving considerable energy.  
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In addition, an energy audit was conducted in FY2009 (see page 19 of Reference 14) at the 
Philadelphia facility.  As a result of the audit, a steam generation plant is under consideration to 
install onsite and save costs associated with offsite steam generation. 
In FY2010, the United States Mint successfully concluded a Power Purchasing Agreement to 
supply the United States Mint at Denver with wind energy for all of its electricity use.  As a 
result, the Denver facility now uses 100% sustainable energy.  In addition, in FY2009, the 
United States Mint at Philadelphia completed a comprehensive energy and water evaluation and 
retro-commissioning.  The retro-commissioning uncovered 21 energy conservation measures.  In 
FY2010, the United States Mint at Philadelphia closed out 11 of these measures for a total 
energy savings of 2,022,180 kilowatt-hours (kWh) of electricity and 3563M kg (7839M lb) of 
steam compared to FY2008 levels. 
These sustainability projects have the added social benefits of reducing air pollution, water 
pollution, solid waste and greenhouse gas emissions. 
6.7.6.2  Legal, Regulatory and Policy Requirements 
EO 13514, Federal Leadership in Environmental, Energy and Economic Performance 
established “an integrated strategy towards sustainability in the Federal Government” by 
requiring all Federal agencies to achieve a series of sustainability goals.  EO 13514 adds to and 
extends the sustainability requirements of the Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct), EO 13423, 
and the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 (EISA).  One of the primary stated goals 
of EO 13514 is to increase energy efficiency. 
The United States Mint FY2011 Strategic Sustainability Performance Plan (Sustainability Plan) 
identifies how the United States Mint will achieve each of the EO 13514 sustainability goals.  
The Sustainability Plan targets reductions in energy use as part of its approach to reducing GHG 
emissions and notes that Section 431 of EISA requires Federal agencies to reduce the energy 
intensity of their buildings by 3% annually through FY2015 from a FY2003 baseline. 
Under Treasury Directive 75-04:  Energy Management Program, it is the policy of the 
Department of the Treasury to improve energy efficiency of agency facilities, on a gross square 
foot basis, 3% annually through the end of FY2015 or 30% by 2015 compared to FY2003 
baseline year, thereby reducing production costs as well as GHG and other emissions. 
6.7.6.3  Environmental Impacts 
Any environmental impacts related to energy use anticipated from the proposed action are 
expected to be positive. 
A change in the material used for the 5-cent coin that would result in lower annealing 
temperatures and more malleable material would benefit production energy use at many levels.  
If any of the recommended copper-based options with lower nickel content than the incumbent 
5-cent coin, namely 669z, unplated 31157 or G6 mod, are selected to replace the composition of 
the incumbent 5-cent coin, then the annealing furnace could be operated at a temperature that is 
approximately 140 °C (250 °F) lower than the current temperature thereby reducing the amount 
of annealing gas and electricity used to operate the furnace. 
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In addition, as all denominations other than the one-cent coin are currently supplied as coiled 
sheet requiring blanking, the selection of an option that is supplied as a planchet, such as Dura­
White-plated zinc, for the 5-cent, dime, quarter dollar or half dollar coins would eliminate the 
energy used by the United States Mint to operate the blanking presses, annealing furnaces, 
upsetting, washers and post-wash drying equipment for those denominations.  A substantial 
savings in the United States Mint’s energy costs would result. 
It is not recommended under this proposed action, but a potential scenario in which energy use 
could increase would involve the selection of coiled sheet-based option, such as 5052-H32, for 
the one-cent coin.  As the incumbent one-cent coin is provided to the United States Mint in 
planchet form, switching to a sheet-based option would require additional production steps, 
including blanking, washing, drying and upsetting which would necessarily require more energy 
use at the United States Mint.  The overall effective energy usage would transfer from the current 
suppliers to the United States Mint.  This would have a net-zero overall impact on energy usage, 
but would increase energy usage associated with the coin-making processes at the United States 
Mint; however, a final accounting would depend upon whether one of the energy saving options 
for the 5-cent coin is selected.  With that said, this scenario is considered to be unlikely because 
the potential use of 5052-H32 for the one-cent coin would cause major problems for the coin-
processing stakeholders based on the lower density of aluminum and its higher probability of 
jamming coin-acceptance equipment and the potential permanent damage that would be caused 
to high-speed automated equipment commonly used to sort and/or count coins. 
The proposed action currently recommends keeping the incumbent copper-plated zinc one-cent 
coin that is supplied as a planchet, moving to one of the nearly seamless copper-based 
alternatives (669z, G6 mod or unplated 31157) for the 5-cent coin and moving to one of the 
nearly seamless copper-based alternatives (669z or G6 mod) roll clad to the incumbent C110 
copper core for the dime, quarter dollar and half dollar coins.  Unplated 31157 may also prove to 
be a viable near seamless option after additional development of composition and/or processing. 
(Again, nearly seamless alloys have an EMS match, but may have slight weight differences from 
the incumbent coin.)  Taking these actions would, for the reasons outlined above, result in a 
reduction in energy use and an environmental benefit. 
6.7.7  Biological Resour ces 
6.7.7.1  Background and Existing Conditions 
Biological resources include native and naturalized plants and animals and their habitats. 
6.7.7.2  Legal, Regulatory and Policy Requirements 
The goal of the Endangered Species Act (ESA) of 1973 [22] is to protect threatened and 
endangered species of animals and plants, and their habitats.  Under the ESA, Federal agencies 
must avoid “takings” of threatened and endangered species or adversely affecting the critical 
habitats that are essential to their survival.  Proponents of Federal actions are required to consult 
with the US Fish and Wildlife Service (USFWS) or the National Marine Fisheries Service 
(NMFS) when any threatened or endangered species may be impacted by a proposed action.  In 
most cases, the USFWS is responsible for land and freshwater species while NMFS is 
responsible for marine species. 
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6.7.7.3  Environmental Impacts 
There are no significant environmental impacts to biological resources anticipated from the 
proposed action.  The proposed action would utilize existing production operations within 
existing United States Mint and coinage material supplier facilities.  No new activities with the 
potential to impact plants, animals or their habitats would be undertaken in order to carry out the 
proposed action.