French borrowings and their role in english language
Download 242.42 Kb.
|
kurs ishiii3
|
French borrowings and their role in english language Plan: 1.French borrowings in the modern english language 2.French borrowings their influence on the English language 3.Cause and ways of borrowings 4. The functioning of French borrowingis in the field of fashion, food, clothes Conclusion Reference books Introduction “The time has come to create in Uzbekistan a new system of teaching foreign languages, which will become a solid foundation for the future. Since we set ourselves the goal of building a competitive state, from now on, graduates of schools, lyceums, colleges and universities must be fluent in at least two foreign languages. This strict requirement should become the main criterion for the work of the head of each education institution”, Shavkat Mirziyoyev said. It was noted that an Agency for the Promotion of Learning Foreign Languages will be created under the Cabinet of Ministers. The agency will be engaged in the introduction of proven methods, programs and textbooks into the education system, and will organize training in at least 10 foreign languages based on the needs of educational institutions, industries and regions. The agency’s competence will also include the task of developing and introducing methods for ministries, agencies and other employers that will allow employees to carry out professional activities in foreign languages. One of the main tasks of the structure will be the creation of methods for professional translation from the state language into foreign and from foreign languages into the state. The agency will also maintain a rating of foreign language proficiency, develop qualification requirements and criteria for assessing foreign language teachers and assign qualification categories to theme In general, the main activity of the Agency will be the development and implementation of methods 1 recommendations and textbooks for all categories of the population along the chain “kindergarten – school – higher education – enterprise”. In addition to Tashkent State Universities of World Languages and Oriental Studies, the Samarkand Institute of Foreign Languages, one university in each region will be determined as the base for the study of foreign languages.The Head of the state emphasized the need for creating decent conditions for teachers and stimulating them based on their qualifications.The task has been set to introduce salary increments for teachers who have received an international certificate with an initial and secondary level – in the amount of 40 percent, and for those who have achieved a high level – in the amount of 50 percent.At the same time, starting next year, a requirement for an international certificate will be introduced for applicants for master's and doctoral studies. The teaching of specialized subjects in a foreign language will be gradually introduced in higher education institutions. Free use of foreign textbooks and manuals on natural and technical subjects will be introduced.20 specialists will be sent abroad annually for doctoral studies through the El-Yurt Umidi Foundation to increase the scientific and pedagogical potential in this sphere.The need was noted for stimulating the study of languages in every ministry, agency, state company and large private enterprises, to introduce a special day for the study of foreign languages there and create the necessary conditions for this.Instructions were also given to create video lessons, educational films and broadcasts, as well as the development of e-programs.Responsible officials and teachers expressed their views and suggestions on the issues discussed at the meeting. 2
1. State and state administration: government, parliament, counsel, assembly, authority, office, power, baron, count, duke, duchess, prince, royal, feudal. 2. Court of justice: court, justice, jury, prison, crime, acquit, sentence, penalty, defendant, guilt. 3. Military life: war, battle, army, regiment, general, captain, lieutenant, victory. 4. Church life: religion, parish, altar, Bible, paradise, saint, vice, virtue, divine, clergy. 5. Amusements: leisure, pleasure, sport, tournament, dance, cards, feast, joy. There are also other groups of French borrowings in modern English. Some of them are rather small. They may include not more than half a dozen of words (or even less), but these words are also suggestive of French habits or French innovations. Thus, migrants from Normandy preferred to settle in towns not in villages. They started their business in new places and called their professions by their French names. That is why many town professions in the English language are denoted by words of French origin: butcher, painter, hatter, grocer, tailor. The professions spread in the countryside retain their English names (smith, miller, shepherd) because village population was almost purely English. The forms of direct address sir and madam also came from the French language in the ME period. Alongside the words like pardon, excuse, please they function today as forms of etiquette. 3
· Words denoting articles of clothes: dress, costume, coat, collar, fur, garment. · Words denoting pieces of art and architecture: art, colour, image, figure, temple, palace, column, pillar. · Words denoting meals and dishes: dinner, supper, soup, pastry, roast. It is interesting to note that unlike dinner and supper the word breakfast is of Germanic origin. A probable explanation might also be found in the Norman way of life. The French nobility got up late when the time of breakfast had passed. It must also be noted that lots of French borrowings have no connections with the activities of French aristocracy, French innovations or French habits. These are words belonging to different semantic fields used in everyday communication: advice, flower, travel, treasure, chance, river, mountain, enter, envy, obey, eager, firm, sure, very, etc. The infiltration of French words into the English language gave rise to pairs of synonyms. One of such synonyms descended from OE, the other came from the French language. In many cases borrowed words established their position in the English language by ousting their native synonyms: the French word river replaced OE ēa the word mountain ousted OE berg, the word army replaced OE fird. If both of the synonyms survived in the language they developed different meanings, or different stylistic colouring. Such French words as commence, vessel, existence belong to the bookish style while their English synonyms begin, ship, life are neutral. In some cases distinctions between French and English synonyms are motivated by social stratification of medieval England. The Norman nobility could afford expensive clothes, expensive food, expensive 4 furniture. Hence French words like table, chair denote elaborate articles. In earlier times such things could be afforded only by wealthy Normans. English words such as board and stool describe simple furniture. In medieval England, it was found in sleepers. A typical example of such a distinction is the English cow, veal, pig and sheep on the one hand and the French beef, veal, pork and mutton on the other hand. The native origin word describes a living animal, as Anglo-Saxon farmers bred the animal. French aristocrats treated animals only when they were served as food, so the French word represented the meat of these animals. 1066. With the famous Battle of Hasting, when the English were defeated by the Normans under William the Conqueror, we come to the eventful epoch of the Norman Conquest. The epoch can well be called eventful not only in national, social, political and human terms, but also in linguistic terms. England became a bilingual country, and the impact on the English vocabulary made over this two-hundred-years period is immense: French words from the Norman dialect penetrated every aspect of social life. Here is a brief list of example of Norman French borrowings. Administrative words: state, goverment, parliament, council,power. Legal terms: court, judge, justice, crime, prison. Military terms: army, war, soldier, officer, battle, enemy. Educational terms: pupil, lesso, library, science, pen, pencil. Everyday life was not unaffected buy the powerful influence of French words, Numerous terms of everyday life were also borrowed from French in this period: e.g. table, plate, saucer, dinner, supper, river, autumn, uncle, etc. According to different sources, nearly 30% of all English words have a French origin. This fact suggests that 80,000 words should appear in this list. 5 However, this list does not include derivatives formed in English, but only the ones imported as such directly from French (for instance joy and joyous, but not joyful, joyfulness, nor partisanship, parenthood, …). It does not include either combinations of words of French origin with words of origin other than French (e.g. icecream, sunray, jellyfish, killjoy, lifeguard, passageway). It also excludes English-made combinations of words of French origin (e.g. grapefruit is made of grape + fruit but has been coined in English, layperson: lay + person, consider also mailorder, magpie, marketplace, petticoat, straitjacket). 4English has long overtaken French as the primary international lingua franca. It is by far the most used second language, though often in a truncated form sometimes known as global English or Globish. French, in contrast, has been slowly declining in influence within the Anglosphere. In the UK it is no longer the automatic choice of second language within school, and this this trend is even more pronounced in the USA. Canada, of course, remains an exception, though widespread French usage is localised. French may dominate in Montreal but not in Toronto, where 85.9% only speak English (2016 Census). And while perfidious Albion may have said adieu to the (allegedly) francophone EU, English still doggedly echoes along the corridors of Brussels. A majority remaining twenty-seven countries are on Team English when it comes to the most useful lingua franca. Yes, and that includes you, Ireland.French vocabulary still has great caché amongst the educated elites across the world. Words associated with learning, culture and luxury have particularly high status: haute couture, haute cuisine, chic, elegance etc. This has fed into the culture wars, , with Bart Simpson leading the charge against the ‘cheese eating surrender monkeys’. You’d be run out out of the faculty lounge for expressing such sentiments but accusations of linguistic snobbery and elitism have a long history. Fowler, in his Modern English Usage (1926) talks about the ‘vulgarity’ of the excessive use of French words and phrases.The process of borrowing affects the development of the language. As a result new words and 6
If the estimation of the role of borrowings is based on the study of words recorded in the dictionary, it is easy to overestimate the effect of the loan words, as the number of native words is extremely small compared with the number of borrowings recorded.The only true way to estimate the relation of the native to the borrowed element is to consider the two as actually used in speech. If one counts every word used, including repetitions, in some reading matter, the proportion of native to borrowed words will be quite different. On such a count, every writer-uses considerably more native words than borrowings. Shakespeare, for example, has 90%, Milton 81 %, Tennyson 88%.1 This shows how important is the comparatively small nucleus of native words. Different borrowings are marked by different frequency value. Those well established in the vocabulary may be as frequent in speech as native words, whereas others occur very rarely. The great number of borrowings in English left some imprint upon the language. The first effect of foreign influence is observed in the volume of its vocabulary. Due to its history the English language, more than any other modern language, has absorbed foreign elements in its vocabulary. But the adoption of foreign words must not be understood as mere quantitative change. Any importation into the lexical system brings about semantic and stylistic changes in the words of this language and changes in its synonymic groups. It has been mentioned that when borrowed words were identical in meaning with 1 those already in English the adopted word very often displaced the native word. In most cases, however, the borrowed words and synonymous native words (or words borrowed earlier) remained in the language, becoming more or less differentiated in meaning and use. Cf., e.g., the sphere of application and meaning of feed and nourish, try and endeavour, meet and encounter. The core part of the research was the typology of linguistic borrowings, like formal, morphological, semantic, lexical, syntactic, phraseological, and pragmatic borrowings12. 8
The influence of the French language has also marked the domain of the arts: surrealism, impressionism, symbolism, art nouveau, gouache, collage, grisaille …; Architecture : aisle, arcade, arch, vault, belfry, arc-boutant, buttress, bay, estrade, facade, balustrade, terrace, lunette, niche, pavilion, pilaster, porte cochère ; Cuisine: petit four, soufflé, mille-feuille, croissant, pastry, gateau, baba au rhum, cream, caramel, custard, marmalade, meringue, clafoutis, flognarde, beef bourguignon, cassoulet, casserole, confit, gratin, mustard, mayonnaise, sauce,pâté, foie gras, terrine, navarin …Other examples include color names (ecru, mauve, beige, carmine, maroon, blue, orange, violet, vermilion, turquoise, lilac, perse, scarlet) ; vegetables or fruits (courgette, aubergine, cabbage, carrot, nutmeg, quince, lemon, orange, apricot); months of the year (January, March, May, July, November, December). English is a Germanic Language of the Indo-European Family. It is the second most spoken language in the world. It is estimated that there are 300 million native speakers and 300 million who use English as a second language and a further 100 million use it as a foreign language. It is the language of science, aviation, computing, diplomacy, and tourism. It is listed as the official or co-official language of over 45 countries and is spoken extensively in other countries where it has no official status. This domination is unique in history. English is on its way to becoming the world's unofficial international language. Mandarin (Chinese) is spoken by more people, but English is now the most widesdivad of the world's languages. Half of all business deals are conducted in English. Two thirds of all scientific papers are written in English. Over 70% of all post / mail is written and addressed in English. Most international tourism, aviation and diplomacy are conducted in English. English contains many words from Norman French, brought to England during the 11th century Norman Conquest. In 1066 the Normans conquered Britain. Frenchbecame the language of the Norman aristocracy and added more vocabulary to English. More pairs of similar words arose. 9
Many Norman French words entered the language after this. In general, the Normans were the nobility, while the native English were their servants. The names of domestic animals and their meats show this relationship. The animal name is English ("cow", "sheep", "pig") while the names of the meats derived from these animals is Frenc("beef","mutton", "pork").Developed feudalism, it was the language of upper classes, of official documents and school instruction from the middle of the 11th century to the end of the 14th century. Borrowings are interesting not only for the influence they have on the system structure of the vocabulary of a given language, as well as for their special status in the borrowed language, if a number of genetic characteristics are preserved, but also for the influence they have on the formation of the linguistic picture of the world of speakers of this particular language. This influence is most obvious when not only individual units are involved in the borrowing process, but whole groups of words between which certain semantic relations existed in the source language. Semantic should be understood as groups of words united by the commonality of the subject–semantic sphere, for example, borrowings from the English, French languages related to the areas of legislation, military affairs, religion and jurisprudence. Considering the issue of changing the lexical composition of the English language during the transition from Old English to Middle English and 10 Modern English, accompanied by the disappearance of many native words and the appearance of borrowings in their place, in our opinion, we should pay attention to some important circumstances. In all languages, the usual process of discarding words denoting archaic realities takes place. Such words move into the category of archaisms. In some cases, such words can still exist in the language for a long time due to literary use, despite the functional and genre limitations. The peculiarity of the history of English vocabulary was that the words belonging to the above type disappeared almost instantly. After the Norman conquest of England in the 11th century, which marked the transition from Old English to Middle English, not only the restructuring of state and public institutions took place, but also “the literary epic tradition broke off, where they could AngloSaxon archaisms would have been preserved” . This circumstance, according to in our opinion, it indicates the exceptional susceptibility of the language to foreign borrowings during the formation of the national supra-dialect language and, accordingly, the national picture of the world. Since the object of this study is the vocabulary of the English language, we find it expedient to give a brief description of the lexical composition of the English language in the diachronic aspect, as well as to describe the processes of borrowing foreign vocabulary by the English language. From our point of view, this will allow us to get a general idea of the formation of the English language picture of the world, and about the factors that influenced its development. “The originality and uniqueness of the national language pictures of the world is connected, first of all, with vocabulary” . It is the diachronic aspect that is able to most clearly show the dynamics of the development of English linguoculture by the example of its adaptation of foreign language borrowings. In the study of the borrowed element in English the main emphasis is as a rule placed on the Middle English period. Borrowings of later periods became the object of investigation only in recent years. These investigations have shown that the flow of borrowings has been steady and uninterrupted. The greatest number has come from French. They refer to various fields of social-political, scientific and cultural life. A large portion of borrowings (41%) is scientific and technical terms. The number and character of borrowed words tell us of the relations between the peoples, the level of their culture, etc. It is for this reason that borrowings have often been called the milestones of history. Thus if we go through the lists of borrowings in English and arrange them in groups according to their meaning, we shall be able to obtain much valuable information with regard to England’s contacts with many nations. Some borrowings, however, cannot be explained by the direct influence of 11 certain historical conditions, they do not come along with any new objects or ideas. Such were for instance the words air, place, brave, gay borrowed from French.It must be pointed out that while the general historical causes of borrowing from different languages have been studied with a considerable degree of thoroughness the purely linguistic reasons for borrowing are still open to investigation. spelling and some peculiarities of their sound-form, their assimilation is a long and laborious process.Though borrowed words undergo changes in the adopting language they preserve some of their former peculiarities for a comparatively long period. This makes it possible to work out some criteria for determining whether the word belongs to the borrowed element. In some cases the pronunciation of the word (strange sounds, sound combinations, position of stress, etc.), its spelling and the correlation between sounds and letters are an indication of the foreign origin of the word. This is the case with soufflé (Fr.), The initial position of the sounds [v], [dз], [з] or of the letters x, j, z is a sure sign that the word has been borrowed, e.g. volcano (It.), vase (Fr.), Sometimes the form of the word and its meaning in Modern English enable us to tell the immediate source of borrowing. Thus if the digraph ch is sounded as [∫], the word is a late French borrowing (as in echelon, chauffeur, chef); if it stands for [k], it came through Greek (archaic, architect, chronology); if it is pronounced as [t∫], it is either an early-borrowing (chase, OFr.; cherry, L., OFr.; chime, L.), or a word of Anglo-Saxon origin (choose, child, chin). It is now essential to analyse the changes that borrowings have undergone in the English language and how they have adapted themselves to its peculiarities. Since the process of assimilation of borrowings includes changes in sound-form, morphological structure, grammar characteristics, meaning and usage Soviet linguists distinguish phonetic, grammatical and lexical assimilation of borrowings. Download 242.42 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
|