Guide to Citizens’ Rights and Responsibilities

Klaipeda
·
ˇSiauliai
Panevezys
Vilnius
Kaunas
.
R U S S I A
P O L A N D
L A T V I A
B E L A R U S
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Lithuania
LITHUANIA
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ratify: to make official or to officially sanction
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(MAP BY MARYLAND CARTOGRAPHICS/ THE GALE GROUP)

appointments to prime minister and the Cabinet of Ministers as a check on the
president’s authority.
Like many Western European systems, the Lithuanian judiciary has sever-
al divisions: a constitutional court that hears only constitutional challenges to
laws, judicial rulings, and executive decrees; a regular judicial hierarchy head-
ed by a Supreme Court for ordinary civil and criminal cases; a Senate of Judges
drawn from the membership of the Supreme Court that overturns court
decisions that conflict with the European Convention on Human Rights; an
administrative courts system for disputes about government actions and ben-
efits; and a set of 
arbitration
boards to hear various other disputes. The judi-
ciary is independent, and Lithuanian citizens are able to exercise a full range
of political and civil rights.
Lithuania entered the European Union (EU) on May 1, 2004. The transi-
tion to the EU highlighted problems of government corruption. A land-
planning scandal in 2003 started a chain of wide-scale investigations, which led
to the conviction of public officials and judges as well as the 
impeachment
of
the president in 2003. According to the Special Investigation Bureau
in Lithuania, corruption occurs in 70 percent of public procurements. The
proliferation
of corruption affects many differing aspects of society, including
education, health services, and economic development. Lithuania continues
to work with the EU and the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) to
address these concerns.
See also: 
Estonia; European Union; Latvia.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Clouatre, Douglas. “Lithuania.” In Legal Systems of the World: A Political, Cultural,
and Social Encyclopedia, ed. Herbert M. Kritzer. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC CLIO,
2001.
Freedom House. “Lithuania.” Freedom in the World 2004. New York: Freedom
House, 2004. 
Ͻhttp://www.freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2004/countryrat-
ings/ lithuania.htm
Ͼ.
“Lithuania.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2004.
Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/ geos/lh.htmlϾ.
United Nations Online Network in Public Administration and Finance. “Country Report
of Lithuania.” Nations in Transit 2004.
Ͻhttp://unpan1.un.org/intradoc/groups/
public/documents/nispacee/unpan016581.pdf
Ͼ.
University of Washington, Baltic States Studies. Encyclopedia of Baltic History.
Ͻhttp://depts.washington.edu/baltic/encyclopedia.htmlϾ.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of European and Eurasian Affairs. “Background Note:
Latvia,” December 2004. 
Ͻhttp://www.state.gov/r/pa/ei/bgn/5378.htmϾ.
Melissa J. Comenduley
Luxembourg
The Grand Duchy of Luxembourg sits historically, politically, and linguis-
tically at the intersection of the Romance and Germanic language and cultural
communities, bordering the countries of France, Germany, and Belgium.
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L u x e m b o u r g
impeach: to accuse of a crime or misconduct,
especially a high official; to remove from a
position, especially as a result of criminal
activity
proliferate: to grow in number; to multiply
at a high rate
arbitration: a method of resolving disagree-
ments whereby parties by agreement choose
a person or group of people familiar with
the issues in question to hear and settle their
dispute
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Luxembourg is a constitutional monarchy with a parliamentary system of
government, although the Grand Duke retains somewhat more influence than
do many other constitutional monarchs. In 1951 Luxembourg became a found-
ing member of what eventually became the European Union (EU). In 2004
Luxembourg City was one of the three capitals of the EU and home to many of
its institutions, including the European Court of Justice.
Luxembourg is landlocked and is 2,586 square kilometers (1,034 square
miles) in area. Its estimated population in 2001 was 441,300. Traditionally,
Luxembourgers have been a homogeneous people. In modern times, however,
because citizens of the EU can live and work in any of its mem-
ber nations, almost one-third of the labor force is made up of
foreign workers. Luxembourg has a nearly 100 percent literacy
rate and one of the highest standards of living in Europe.
Owing in part to its location, Luxembourg frequently has
been subject to invasion. The country began a four-century
period of foreign rule after the Duke of Burgundy conquered
the area in 1443. The modern nation of Luxembourg traces its
origins to 1815, when the Congress of Vienna created a buffer
state from the region that now contains the modern countries
of Luxembourg, Belgium, and the Netherlands. To appease
Prussia, Luxembourg was separated from that state and trans-
formed into an independent grand duchy and a member of the
German Confederation of the Rhine. In 1867 Prussian occupa-
tion ended, and Luxembourg became a neutral and truly inde-
pendent nation. In 1890 control of the Grand Duchy passed
from Dutch kings to Adolphus, Duke of Nassau-Weilburg, from
whose family the reigning Grand Duke still descends. In 1919
Luxembourg declared itself a parliamentary constitutional
monarchy.
Luxembourg’s Constitution was enacted on October 17,
1868. There is compulsory voting in parliamentary elections for
all citizens over the age of eighteen.
The national parliament is known as the Chamber of
Deputies; it has sixty deputies who are elected for a five-year
term by means of universal suffrage and a system of propor-
tional representation. After the June 2004 elections the
Chamber of Deputies included members from five different
political parties, although the nation’s cabinet was formed
by a coalition of the two largest parties, the Christian Social
People’s Party and the Socialist Workers’ Party. Jean-
Claude Juncker (b. 1954), leader of the Christian Social Party,
became prime minister in 2004. In addition to the Chamber
of Deputies, the Grand Duke appoints a Council of State
(composed of twenty-one members) that advises the
Chamber on all proposed legislation and has a very limited
veto power.
The courts are separate and independent in Luxembourg
and are based on the French model. The highest court is the
Supreme Court of Justice. There are also two district courts,
which serve as the courts of first instance (i.e., the entry court
into the court system). In American usage the district courts
would be called trial courts. In 1996 a constitutional court was
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L u x e m b o u r g
F A S T   F A C T S
The ancient Saxon name of both the country of
Luxembourg and its capital city means “Little
Fortress,” symbolizing its important strategic
position as the so-called Gibraltar of the north.
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Buurgplaatz
1,835ft.
559 m.
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S ûre
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et
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Ei
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M
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Sûre
O
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Petrusse
Bettembourg
Mondorf
Hesperange
Mamer
Walferdange
Mersch
Redange
Ettelbruck
Echternach
Bettendorf
Clervaux
Wiltz
Vianden
Strassen
Bertrange
Sanem
Schifflange
Diekirch
Capellen
Remich
Grevenmacher
Differdange
Esch
Petange
Dudelange
Luxembourg
G E R M A N Y
F R A N C E
BELGIUM
Luxembourg
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LUXEMBOURG
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created. Although Luxembourgish is the language spoken at home, the lan-
guage of the courts and the rest of the government is French.
See also: 
European Union; Parliamentary Systems.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
The Government of the Grand Duchy of Luxembourg. Luxembourg City: Service
Information et Presse du Gouvernement, 1999.
Wessels, Wolfgang, Andreas Maurer, and Jurgen Mittag. Fifteen into One? The
European Union and Its Member States. Manchester, UK: Manchester University
Press, 2003.
Mark C.Miller
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L u x e m b o u r g

M
Macau
See
Hong Kong and Macau.
Macedonia
Macedonia (officially called the Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia) is
a mountainous country situated on the Balkan Peninsula of Europe. Macedonia
borders Serbia and Montenegro, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece and is home to just
over 2 million people. Like several other Balkan countries, Macedonia has a sub-
stantial Muslim population (approximately 30%) with a remaining 70 percent iden-
tifying as Christian. Macedonia is ethnically diverse; Macedonians and Albanians
are the two largest ethnic groups (64% and 25% of the population, respectively)
and Macedonian and Albanian are the most widely spoken languages.
The 1913 Treaty of Bucharest partitioned the territory known as Macedonia
among Serbia, Bulgaria, Albania, and Greece. The Serbian-controlled area of
Macedonia became part of the newly formed state of Yugoslavia in 1919. Macedonia
proclaimed independence on September 8, 1991, following the disintegration of
Yugoslavia. International recognition of Macedonia’s independence was delayed
because of objections from Greece, due to the new country’s use of what Greece
considered a Hellenic name and symbols. Although Macedonia was admitted to the
United Nations in 1993, the dispute between Greece and Macedonia has continued
into the twenty-first century.
Macedonia has been plagued by continued ethnic tension, fed in part by the
status of neighboring Kosovo. An armed insurgency by ethnic Albanians
demanding greater civil rights ended with a cease-fire in 2001. The cease-fire
agreement provided for the government coalition to expand and include the
major opposition parties and called for constitutional and legislative changes
that improved civil rights for minority groups.
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At the time of its independence, Macedonia was the least-developed of the
Yugoslav republics. Unemployment remains a critical economic problem, with an
estimated one-third of the workforce unemployed in 2003. Although the coun-
try’s leadership has shown commitment to economic reform, free trade, and
regional integration
, these issues have been overshadowed by the fragile political
situation.
The Macedonian government is described as a parliamen-
tary democracy. The government is based on the constitution
adopted on November 17, 1991. In November 2001 the parlia-
ment approved a series of new constitutional amendments that
strengthened minority rights.
The Macedonian government is divided into the legislative,
executive, and judicial branches. The Macedonian legislature, called
the Assembly, has one house with 120 seats. Eighty-five members
are elected by popular vote within constituencies, and thirty-five
members are chosen based on the percentage that a political party
gains from the overall vote. Members of the Assembly hold four-
year terms. Citizens of Macedonia are allowed to vote at the age of
eighteen, and the right to vote is universal.
The executive branch is composed of a president and a prime
minister. The president is elected by popular vote for a five-year
term and serves as commander-in-chief of the armed forces. The
prime minister is the head of government and is elected by the
Assembly along with the cabinet, called the Council of Ministers.
The judicial branch is composed of a Supreme Court, a con-
stitutional court, and the Republican Judicial Council. The judges
for all courts are appointed by the parliament.
Personal security is a concern in Macedonia, where shoot-
ings, bombings, and kidnappings occasionally occur. Other
problems include threats and attacks on journalists, human traf-
ficking, organized crime, and police abuse (particularly of Roma,
or Gypsies). Thus the implementation of constitutional and
legal protection of individual rights remain problematic.
Nevertheless, Freedom House rates the condition of citizen
rights in Macedonia as improving, while still rating the country
as “partly free.”
See also: 
Greece; Kosovo; Serbia and Montenegro.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
Freedom House. “Macedonia.” Freedom in the World 2003. New York: Freedom House, 2003.
Ͻhttp://freedomhouse.org/research/freeworld/2003/countryratings/macedonia.htmϾ.
Glenny, Misha. The Balkans: Nationalism, Wars and the Great Powers, 1804–1999. New
York: Penguin Putnam, 1999.
“Macedonia.” CIA World Factbook. Washington, DC: Central Intelligence Agency, 2005.
Ͻhttp://www.cia.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/mk.htmlϾ.
Poulton, Hugh. Who Are the Macedonians? Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2000.
U.S. Department of State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor. “Macedonia.”
Country Reports on Human Rights Practices. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of
State, Bureau of Democracy, Human Rights, and Labor, 2003. 
Ͻhttp://www.state.gov/
g/drl/rls/hrrpt/2003/27852.htm
Ͼ.
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M a c e d o n i a
regional integration: the movement of eco-
nomic or political power to a central authority
from regional centers of power
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Korab
9,068 ft.
2764 m.
Kozjak
5,728 ft.
1746 m.
Rujen
7,388 ft.
2252 m.
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JAKU
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BELASICA
Ohridsko
Jezero
Prespansko
Jezero
Límni
Doïránis
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o
Vard
ar
Tr e s k a
B
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ga
lnica
Skopje
Bitola
Tetovo
Strumica
Prilep
Debar
Struga
Sopotnica
Kocani
Luke
Veles
Blatec
Kumanovu
Gevgelija
Dobrino
Idhoméni
Flórina
G R E E C E
ALBANIA
SERBIA &
MONTENEGRO
BULGARIA
Macedonia
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MACEDONIA
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The World Bank Group. “Macedonia” World Development Indicators Database, August
2004.
Ͻhttp://devdata.worldbank.org/external/CPProfile.asp?SelectedCountry=
MKD&CCODE= MKD&CNAME=Macedonia%2C+FYR&PTYPE=CP
Ͼ.
Shawn T. Flanigan
Madagascar
The Republic of Madagascar is located about 400 kilome-
ters (250 miles) off the west coast of southern Africa in the
Indian Ocean, east of Mozambique. It has a tropical climate
along its narrow coastal plain and a temperate climate in its
mountainous center. The country is the world’s fourth largest
island, slightly smaller than Texas. Among its modest natural
resources are graphite, chromite, coal, bauxite, salt, mica, some
semiprecious stones, and fish. The economy is overwhelmingly
agricultural, with 85 percent of the population employed in
farming of some sort. According to the CIA World Factbook,
Madagascar had a population of nearly 17 million in 2003. 
Once an independent kingdom, Madagascar became a French
colony in 1885, before reestablishing its full independence in 1960.
These negotiations for independence were led by President
Philibert Tsiranana (1912–1978), who was firmly committed to
maintaining positive relations with the West. In consolidating
power just after independence, Tsiranana saw to it that his party,
whose main source of support was the middle class, maintained
political control of the country. This suppression of opposition
parties combined with extended economic stagnation eventually
led to high levels of political instability, with nationwide protests
that included students, workers, and peasants. 
These circumstances caused President Tsiranana to dissolve
the First Republic and surrender control of the country to the
Malagasy military in 1973. Didier Ratsiraka (b. 1936), a military offi-
cer and dedicated Marxist, took power and was elected president
by referendum in 1975, receiving 95 percent of the vote. However,
both the suppression of civil liberties and Ratsiraka’s willingness to
make capitalist economic adjustments eroded his base of support,
until he was forced to hold new national elections in 1993. He lost
to chief opposition leader Albert Zafy (b. 1927). Ratsiraka was then
reelected in 1996 following allegations of Zafy’s abuse of power
and an economic crisis. Nonetheless, Ratsiraka was defeated again
in a contested election, where after a brief electoral dispute Marc
Ravalomanana (b. 1949) was declared the winner and Ratsiraka left
the country.
Madagascar is a multiparty republican form of government
based on French civil law and Malagasy traditional law, with uni-
versal suffrage for every citizen eighteen or older. Its constitution,
adopted in 1992 and revised in 1998, gives extensive powers to
the president, although in theory it divides power between the
branches of government. The executive branch consists of the
president, a prime minister chosen by the National Assembly and
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M a d a g a s c a r
Cap
Saint
Vincent
Cap
Saint
André
Cap
Masoala
Cap Saint Marie
Cap d'Ambre
MASSIF DU
TSARATANANA
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S
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B
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h
a
P
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a
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Mt. Maromokotro 
9,436 ft.
2876 m
INDIAN  OCEAN
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C
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a
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M
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Onilahy
Mang
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Man
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B
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sib
ok
a
M
a
h
a
ja
m
b
a
Sofia
Lac
Kinkony
 Lac
Alaotra
Baie de
Baly
Baie de
Narinda
B
aie
d'A
nto
ngila
Canal des
Pangalanes
Nosy Be
Nosy
Sainte Marie
Île de Mayotte
(FR.)
Île Juan
de Nova
(FR.)
Îles Glorieuses
(FR.)
Antananarivo
Antsirabe
Antsiranana
Mahajanga
Toamasina
Fianarantsoa
Toliara
¨
Marovoay
Besalampy
Antalaha
Maroantsetra
Ambilobe
Ambatondrazaka
Ambatolampy
Vatomandry
Moramanga
Foolpointe
Manakara
Farafangana
Vangaindrano
Manantenina
Ranomena
Morondava
Belo-
Tsiribihina
Antanambe
Rantabe
Maevatanana
Fenoarivo Be
Manja
Atsimo
Tolanaro
(Fort Dauphin)
Androka
Amboasary
Ambositra