Handbook of psychology volume 7 educational psychology

Educational Programs, Research, and Policy

15

Walker and Gresham provide a critical examination of be-

havior disorders in children and adolescents by first delineat-

ing the current status of the field. This is followed by a

discussion of current trends in research and practice in this

field that the authors consider to be indicative of best practices,

including functional assessment of behavior, interventions that

utilize positive behavioral support, research examining teacher

interactions with students with behavior disorders, the associ-

ation between language deficits and behavior disorders in

children, the utility of office referrals as a critical indicator of

potential behavior disorders, and resistance to intervention as a

cardinal symptom for the determination of treatment eligibility

and selection. Walker and Gresham also describe a number of

problems in the field of behavior disorders, most of which are

at a policy or practice level. These include political turmoil in

the field of behavior disorders as a specialty area; limited trans-

lation of quality research on major problems in the field to

everyday practice; the larger role of creating safe and healthy

school environments; the propensity for postmodern and

deconstructivist perspectives that devalue scientific research to

be adopted by behavior disorder professionals; the general fail-

ure of schools to serve the needs of students with behavior dis-

abilities, in part due to interpretation of federal education

legislation; and finally, the relative lack of attention by profes-

sionals and leaders in the field to early identification and pre-

vention activities.

Instrumental to the provision of appropriate services is the

utilization of well-researched interventions for the treatment

of behavior disorders in children and adolescents in school

settings. The authors provide an argument for the use of so-

cial skills instruction with appropriate inclusion of proce-

dures to modify maladaptive behaviors. 

EDUCATIONAL PROGRAMS, RESEARCH,

AND POLICY

Educational psychology has had a significant role in the de-

velopment and reform of educational practices. An important

contribution of educational psychology is the knowledge and

guidance provided to the education of teachers. As noted

earlier, courses in educational psychology are required in

most university teacher preparation programs. An examina-

tion of introductory textbooks in educational psychology

shows a strong preference toward teachers as their primary

audience. Hoy (2000) observes that it is through textbooks

in educational psychology that we can see what the general

public and teachers learn about the application of psychology

to teaching and related educational activities. The signif-

icant breadth of methodological knowledge that educational

psychologists bring to the political reform table has been in-

fluential in stressing the need for credible school-based inter-

vention research. In this respect, educational psychology acts

as the conduit to introduce and apply research and principles

of psychology to educational practices. The role of educa-

tional psychologists will continue to be an important and

credible voice in resolving ongoing controversies critical to

the advancement and application of knowledge for educa-

tional practice. 

Teacher Learning, Education, and Curriculum 

Learning to teach is arguably one of the most cognitively and

emotionally challenging efforts one can undertake, and new

teachers face greater challenges than ever before with today’s

diverse student needs, public scrutiny, and political pressures

(see chapter by Whitcomb in this volume). Concurrently,

there is a critical need to prepare more teachers than ever

before and there are deeply divided ideas about best practice

for initial teacher preparation (National Commission on

Teaching and America’s Future, 1996). Whitcomb asserts

that there is a critical need for rigorous empirical work on

initial teacher preparation. Until recently, scholarly analyses

of this pedagogy have been surprisingly limited. 

What do initial teachers need to know? Whitcomb re-

views and synthesizes that large body of work dedicated

to establishing teaching as a learning profession (Darling-

Hammond & Sykes, 1999). Teaching is now viewed as a pro-

fession with a complex and distinguished knowledge base.

Current research is focused on the integrated processes and

judgments teachers use to navigate this breadth of informa-

tion. Whitcomb narrows the focus of this chapter to a critical

review of cognitively oriented studies of new teacher’s learn-

ing. There is an emphasis on what is known about the essen-

tial knowledge base for new teachers and how teachers learn

across diverse contexts. 

The chapter begins with an overview of prior research

conducted to identify a knowledge base associated with what

an effective beginning teacher needs to know, to do, and to

value (Ball & Cohen, 1999). Theoretical shifts in studies of

teaching have followed much the same route as that observed

in the broader field of educational psychology. Views of a

good teacher have moved from a focus on discrete knowledge

and skills, to studies of the cognitions and decisions that

occur during teaching, to more recent studies on the interplay

of personal beliefs, knowledge, skills, and situational or con-

textual mediators of initial teachers’ learning.

From the early 1980s educational researchers have

focused on building an understanding of the specialized

knowledge base required to effectively teach content in

16

Current Perspectives in Educational Psychology

multiple ways to diverse learners. This work has been

strongly influenced by the work of educational psychologists

working within social constructivist models that view physi-

cal and social contexts as integral parts of any cognitive

endeavor. Research within this tradition stresses that the situ-

ations and the social environments within which they are

learned influence skills and that such situated knowledge

becomes a fundamental part of what is learned. 

Currently there is a move away from studying individual

teachers’ knowledge to studies that focus on interactive sys-

tems as the unit of analysis (Putnam & Borko, 2000). Recent

work has focused on the dispositions that underlie good

teaching—how teachers become committed to students, to

meeting individual student needs, and to monitoring their

own and their students’ learning. In this respect, teaching

and teachers are viewed as part of learning communities that

require judgment and ongoing, flexible decision making to

support student learning in culturally inclusive settings. Re-

searchers are now examining how teachers learn to teach—

how they actively construct a personal knowledge base and

then use it to guide everyday classroom judgments and learn-

ing. These contemporary efforts are critically relevant to ini-

tial teacher preparation.

Whitcomb goes on to highlight key features of effective

initial teacher preparation programs. This work supports the

critical role of prior beliefs, content knowledge, mentors, col-

leagues, and the setting in which teacher candidates learn to

teach. Two promising lines of research are summarized that

embody some of these essential characteristics—research on

how initial teachers learn to teach writing and research on the

impact of case methodology in teacher preparation.

The chapter ends with a critical analysis of the limits of

current research and the need for stronger empirical work to

enhance our understanding of initial teacher pedagogy in the

future. The conclusion drawn from this review is that educa-

tional psychologists are in a unique position to influence and

conduct rigorous inquiry that will further unravel the com-

plexity of teaching and contribute to the development of

effective initial teacher preparation models.

A Case for Enhancing the Credibility of

Educational-Psychological Intervention Research

Educational psychology has for over a century been at

the forefront in the development of research methodologies

and statistics. Educational psychologists have been active

in the fields of educational measurement, statistics, and

research designs. Notable journals include the Journal of

Educational Measurement, Educational and Psychological

Measurement, Journal of Educational Statistics, Applied

Psychological Measurement, Educational Assessment, and

others that have as a primary focus the presentation of

new measurement, statistical, and research methodologies.

In the chapter by Levin et al. (this volume), a very provoca-

tive argument is forwarded that stresses the need for more

credible, rigorous standards in the conceptualization, design,

and evaluation of instructional educational research. These

authors follow up on the work of Levin and O’Donnell

(1999), who—after reviewing the thoughts of many prior

editors and presidents representing the field of educational

psychology—noted collective concerns about the nature and

quality of educational research and the preparation of the

next generation of researchers.

Educational psychology more than ever before is expected

to improve our ability to understand, predict, and control

human behavior as well as our ability to design instructional

practices with potential applications to problems of school-

ing. Recognizing the inherent difficulties in conducting

educational research and the importance of bridging many

different communities across a wide array of academic disci-

plines, there is a call for a broader array of naturalistic and

empirical methodologies, ranging from case studies and ob-

servations to multivariate designs and analyses (Wittrock,

1994). Contemporary methodological debates about qualita-

tive and quantitative or applied and basic inquiry oversimplify

and trivialize the issue of how to best obtain quality support-

ive evidence using a variety of rigorous inquiry standards that

could be reflected in any methodological orientation.

The acronym CAREful (Comparison, Again and Again,

Relationship and Eliminate) research is used to review com-

ponents of scientific integrity that can enhance the evidence

credibility of educational research. A framework for concep-

tualizing different stages of such research is forwarded, and

promising methodological developments in instructional re-

search are reviewed. Preliminary phases of inquiry place a

fundamental value on subjective reflection, intuition, and ob-

servation as important steps for guiding further inquiry using

objective, scientifically credible methodology in order to

make valid prescriptions for future intervention. Trustworthy

and credible instructional research to assess the relative

impact of educational and psychological treatments or inter-

ventions is of critical importance for policy makers. Indeed,

as Levin (1994) eloquently argued previously, the future via-

bility of the field will depend on our ability to craft edu-

cational intervention research that is both credible and

creditable. The development of such innovative methodologi-

cal continua should become a top priority for future educa-

tional researchers.

Summary

17

From Credible Research to Policy

and Educational Reform

Educational psychology as a discipline has from its inception

sought to inform and help guide the education of students and

the development of local and national education policies

and reforms. Educational psychology has accomplished this

goal by maintaining a strong linkage to credible school-based

research and associated methodologies. McCombs (this vol-

ume) illustrates how research in educational psychology can

be translated to changes in educational practice, with a par-

ticular reference to how teachers can be informed by research

to modify and enhance their classroom and instructional

procedures.

McCombs discusses the learner-centered psychological

principles (McCombs & Whisler, 1997), a set of practices

that are designed to enable teachers to gain an understanding

of cognitive and metacognitive factors in learning, motiva-

tional and emotional influences on learning, developmental

and social influences on learning, and individual differences

in learning and evaluation (APA Work Group of the Board of

Educational Affairs, 1997). These principles were designed

to provide teachers with a set of practices that focus on the

learner, including an understanding of individual differences

and diversity of learners and learner styles. The principles

originated with the 1990 appointment by the APA of the Task

Force on Psychology in Education, which sought to provide

for the application of psychological research and theory to

learning in educational contexts. McCombs also delineates

significant contributions of educational psychology to educa-

tional reforms. McCombs notes that educational psychology

is an applied science, with knowledge created that drives the

practice of teaching and the study of learner characteristics. It

also informs policy and educational reform, particularly as

we enter the twenty-first century.

Future Perspectives in Educational Psychology

In writing their chapters for this book, contributors were asked

to provide insight as to what future trends and directions were

anticipated for their respective fields of inquiry. By synthesiz-

ing these ideas, Miller and Reynolds (this volume) sought to

highlight critical theoretical, research, and practical issues

likely to inform and direct the field of educational psychology

well into the twenty-first century. Future issues that uniformly

surfaced across a majority of chapters were reviewed for their

potential of advancing our understanding of individual learn-

ers and learning contexts; interpersonal, relational, and in-

structional processes; curriculum development; and teacher

preparation. Implications are presented for translating theory

into educational practice that increases student learning, en-

hances teacher preparation, and improves schooling practices.

Contemporary educational research issues, methodological ad-

vances, and the impact of educational research on learning,

teaching practice, and educational policies are supported by

exemplars posed by authors in this volume. 

The chapter concludes with an overview of prospective

issues relevant to transforming a vast empirical knowledge

base into sound educational policy and practice. Significant

contributions of educational psychologists are highlighted, as

is the need for trustworthy and credible instructional research

to assess the relative impact of educational and psychological

treatments or interventions. Future educational psychology

researchers must take a leadership role to reduce the tendency

to overgeneralize when looking for solutions to very complex

challenges in education. There is a strong sense that the

field of educational psychology will continue to enhance

our understanding of critical educational issues and—most

important—will lead to higher standards of quality and cred-

ibility to guide future educational policy and reform. 

SUMMARY

Educational psychology, broadly described, focuses on the ap-

plication of psychology to the understanding of learners and the

learning environment. However, such a broad generalization of

the field does not do justice to the myriad of domains and appli-

cations represented by this field of psychology. As this intro-

duction to the field and to this volume of the Handbook

illustrates, the field of educational psychology represents an im-

portant area of psychological research, theory, and practice.

The five major areas of contemporary research and prac-

tice in educational psychology covered in this volume include

cognitive contributions to learning; development and in-

struction; sociocultural, instruction, and relational processes;

curriculum applications; exceptional learner programs and

students; and educational programs, research, and policy.

Within these areas, individual chapters provided for broad

coverage of nearly all the domains identified by Pressley and

Roehrig as having the most significant impact on the field of

educational psychology.

Individually, each chapter describes a rich domain of

research; almost universally, they note a burgeoning of new

research paradigms, perspectives, theories, and major concep-

tualizations that have emerged over the last quarter of a cen-

tury. It is noteworthy that some of these so-called new insights

into human behavior and psychology applied to education

18

Current Perspectives in Educational Psychology

have been predicated on newly recognized and acknowledged

contributions made by psychologists (e.g., Vygotsky, etc.) in

the early part of the twentieth century. Although the scope of

educational psychology as a field of psychology is quite broad,

numerous communalities can be seen across the varied chap-

ters of this volume. These communalities suggest a connect-

edness that supports educational psychology as a rich and vital

field of scientific inquiry.

The influence and impact of research in educational psy-

chology on society are probably best recognized by applica-

tions to the education and training of teachers and the

development of procedures to enhance classroom instruction

and learning, ways to motivate learners, and the integration of

technology into the classroom. These and other applications

in educational psychology are buttressed by an empirical

rigor of research methods in the design of both basic and ap-

plied experiments and field-based investigations. It is evident

that researchers in educational psychology are addressing

major issues related to the education of learners in regular and

special education contexts. In addition to the impact of educa-

tional psychology on learning and learners, it has also played

a major role in informing policy and educational reform.

The mosaic of educational psychology is well represented

by the authors of this volume and their respective chapter

contributions. The sum of knowledge presented in the chap-

ters of this volume illustrates the diversity of research and

practice domains. This introduction to current perspectives in

educational psychology provides a snapshot of the breadth

and scope of this field but does not do justice to the depth of

research and applications. For the latter, the following chap-

ters provide excellent description, evaluation, and synthesis.

The dynamic nature of this field of psychology is evident

across the chapters and serves to illustrate the importance of

educational psychology research and practice to individuals

and society. It is our expectation that this importance will

continue and grow throughout the twenty-first century.

REFERENCES

Ainsworth, M. D., Blehar, M. C., Waters, E., & Wall, D. (1978).

Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange

situation. Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

Ames, C. (1984). Competitive, cooperative, and individualistic goal

structures: A motivational analysis. In R. Ames & C. Ames

(Eds.), Research in motivation in education (Vol. 1, pp. 117–

207). New York: Academic Press.

Ames, C., & Archer, J. (1988). Achievement goals in the classroom:

Students’ learning strategies and motivational processes. Journal

of Educational Psychology, 80, 260–270.

Anderson, R. C., & Pearson, P. D. (1984). A schema-theoretic view

of basic processes in reading comprehension. In P. D. Pearson

(Ed.), Handbook of reading research (pp. 225–291). New York:

Longman.

Bakeman, R., & Gottman, J. M. (1986). Observing interaction: An

introduction to sequential analysis. Cambridge, MA: Cambridge

University Press.

Ball, D. L., & Cohen, D. K. (1999). Developing practice, develop-

ing practitioners: Toward a practice-based theory of professional

education. In L. Darling-Hammond & G. Sykes (Eds.), Teaching

as the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice

(pp. 3–32). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Bandura, A. (1969). Principles of behavior modification. New York:

Holt.

Bandura, A. (1977). Self-efficacy: Toward a unifying theory of

behavior change. Psychological Review, 84, 191–215.

Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanisms in human agency.

American Psychologist, 37, 122–147.

Berliner, D. C., & Calfee, R. (Eds.). (1996). Handbook of educa-

tional psychology. New York: Macmillan.

Binet, A. (1898). La mesure en psychologie individuelle. Revue

Philosophique, 46, 113–123.

Binet, A., & Henri, V. (1896). La psychologie individuelle. L’Annee

Psychologique, 2, 411–465.

Binet, A., & Simon, T. (1905). Application des methodes nouvelles

au diagnostic du niveau intellectuel chez des enfants normaux

et anormaux d’hospice et d’ecole primaire. L’Annee Psycho-

logique, 11, 255–336.

Bowlby, J. (1969). Attachment and loss: Vol. 1. Attachment. New

York: Basic Books.

Brainerd, C. J. (1978). Cognitive development and instructional

theory. Contemporary Educational Psychology, 3, 37–50.

Bronfenbrenner, U., & Morris, P. A. (1998). The ecology of devel-

opmental processes. In W. Damon & R. M. Lerner (Eds.), Hand-

book of child psychology: Vol. 1, Theoretical models of human

development (5th ed., pp. 993–1028). New York: Wiley.

Brophy, J. (1986). Teacher influences on student achievement.

American Psychologist, 41, 1069–1077.

Brophy, J., & Good, J. L. (1974). Teacher-student relationships.

New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston.

Brown, A. L. (1992). Design experiments: Theoretical and method-

ological challenges in creating complex interventions in class-

room settings. Journal of the Learning Sciences, 2, 141–178.

Bruner, J. S. (1960). The process of education. Cambridge, MA:

Harvard University Press.

Bruner, J. S. (1966). Toward a theory of instruction. London: Belnap.

Cronbach, L. J. (1951). Coefficient alpha and the internal structure

of tests. Psychometrika, 16, 297–301.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Sykes, G. (Eds.). (1999). Teaching as

the learning profession: Handbook of policy and practice. San

Francisco: Jossey-Bass.