History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing world
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See discussions, stats, and author profiles for this publication at: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/257434420 History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing world Article in Energy for Sustainable Development · December 2011 DOI: 10.1016/j.esd.2011.09.003 CITATIONS 627 READS 21,960 2 authors , including: Some of the authors of this publication are also working on these related projects: Minimisation of regulated and unregulated disinfection by-products View project Tom Bond University of Surrey 70 PUBLICATIONS 3,659 CITATIONS SEE PROFILE All content following this page was uploaded by Tom Bond on 01 November 2017. The user has requested enhancement of the downloaded file. History and future of domestic biogas plants in the developing world Tom Bond ⁎ , Michael R. Templeton Environmental and Water Resource Engineering, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Skempton Building, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK a b s t r a c t a r t i c l e i n f o Article history: Received 4 June 2010 Revised 28 September 2011 Accepted 28 September 2011 Available online 26 October 2011 Keywords: Biogas Recovery Developing countries Cookstoves Technologies which recover biogas do so by harnessing anaerobic degradation pathways controlled by a suite of microorganisms. The biogas released acts as an environmentally sustainable energy source, while provid- ing a method for disposal of various wastes. Biogas contains 50 –70% methane and 30–50% carbon dioxide, as well as small amounts of other gases and typically has a calori fic value of 21–24 MJ/m 3 . Various appliances can be fuelled by biogas, with stoves offering an application appropriate for deployment in developing coun- tries. Widespread dissemination of biogas digesters in developing countries stems from the 1970s and there are now around four and 27 million biogas plants in India and China respectively. These are typically small systems in rural areas fed by animal manure. However, in many other countries technology spread has foun- dered and/or up to 50% of plants are non-functional. This is linked to inadequate emphasis on maintenance and repair of existing facilities. Hence for biogas recovery technology to thrive in the future, operational sup- port networks need to be established. There appear to be opportunities for biogas stoves to contribute to pro- jects introducing cleaner cookstoves, such as the Global Alliance for Clean Cookstoves. Beyond this, there remains potential for domestic plants to utilise currently underexploited biogas substrates such as kitchen waste, weeds and crop residues. Thus there is a need for research into reactors and processes which enable ef ficient anaerobic biodegradation of these resources. © 2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. Introduction to Biogas Microbially-controlled production of biogas is an important part of the global carbon cycle. Every year, natural biodegradation of organic matter under anaerobic conditions is estimated to release 590 –800 mil- lion tons of methane into the atmosphere ( ISAT/GTZ, 1999a ). Biogas re- covery systems exploit these biochemical processes to decompose various types of biomass, with the liberated biogas potentially providing an energy source. There is a distinction between anthropogenic anaero- bic processes which recover the energy within biogas and those which do not. Examples of the first category are bioreactors designed specifi- cally for substrates, including sewage, agricultural, industrial and munic- ipal waste, containing a high proportion of anaerobically-degradable biomass. In developing countries the expansion of biogas recovery sys- tems has been based upon small-scale reactors designed for digestion of cattle, pig and poultry excreta. Meanwhile, land fill sites and municipal wastewater treatment plants where anaerobic processes produce biogas which is released into the atmosphere, either before or after combus- tion, belong to the second category. Biogas contains 50 –70% methane and 30 –50% carbon dioxide, depending on the substrate ( Sasse, 1988 ) as well as small amounts of other gases including hydrogen sulphide. Methane is the component chie fly responsible for a typical calorific value of 21 –24 MJ/m 3 ( Dimpl, 2010 ) or around 6 kWh/m 3 . Biogas is often used for cooking, heating, lighting or electricity generation. Larger plants can feed biogas into gas supply networks. The activities of at least three bacterial communities are required by the biochemical chain which releases methane. Firstly, during hydrolysis, extracellular en- zymes degrade complex carbohydrates, proteins and lipids into their constituent units. Next is acidogenesis (or fermentation) where hydro- lysis products are converted to acetic acid, hydrogen and carbon dioxide. The facultative bacteria mediating these reactions exhaust residual oxy- gen in the digester, thus producing suitable conditions for the final step: methanogensis, where obligate anaerobic bacteria control methane pro- duction from acidogenesis products. Anaerobic digesters are typically designed to operate in the mesophilic (20 –40 °C) or thermophilic (above 40 °C) temperature zones. Sludge produced from the anaerobic digestion of liquid biomass is often used as a fertiliser. Biogas recovery technologies have been failures in many developing countries, with low rates of technology transfer and longevity and a reputation for being dif ficult to operate and maintain. Thus the objectives of this re- view were to identify the factors underlying successful and unsuccessful operation of domestic biogas plants and to investigate the future chal- lenges, which, once overcome, would enable sustained expansion of bio- gas technology. Energy for Sustainable Development 15 (2011) 347 –354 ⁎ Corresponding author at: Pollution Research Group, School of Chemical Engineer- ing, Howard College Campus, University of KwaZulu-Natal, 4041, Durban, South Africa. Tel.: + 27 0760 447 643; fax: + 27 031 260 3241. E-mail address: tomgbond@hotmail.com (T. Bond). 0973-0826/$ – see front matter © 2011 International Energy Initiative. Published by Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved. doi: 10.1016/j.esd.2011.09.003 Contents lists available at SciVerse ScienceDirect Energy for Sustainable Development History of biogas production There are suggestions that biogas was used for heating bath water in Assyria as long ago as the 10th century B.C. and that anaer- obic digestion of solid waste may well have been applied in ancient China ( He, 2010 ). However, well documented attempts to harness the anaerobic digestion of biomass by humans date from the mid- nineteenth century, when digesters were in constructed in New Zealand and India, with a sewage sludge digester built in Exeter, UK to fuel street lamps in the 1890s ( University of Adelaide, 2010 ). In Guangdong Province, China, commercial use of biogas has been attributed to Guorui Luo. In 1921, he constructed an 8 m 3 biogas tank fed with household waste and later that decade founded a company to popularise the technology ( He, 2010 ). The first German sewage treatment plant to feed biogas into the public gas supply began to do so in 1920, while in the same country the first large agricultural biogas plant began operating in 1950. The spread of biogas technology gained momentum in the 1970s, when high oil prices motivated research into alternative energy sources. The fastest growth of biogas use in many Asian, Latin Amer- ican and African countries was in the 1970s and the first half of the 1980s ( Ni and Nyns, 1996 ). During that period the Chinese govern- ment promoted “biogas use in every rural family” and facilitated the installation of more than seven million digesters ( He, 2010 ) ( Fig. 1 ). From the second half of the 1980s, while biogas technology found more applications in industrial and urban waste treatment and en- ergy conservation, its dispersion into rural areas slowed. In China, by the end of 1988, only 4.7 million household biogas digesters were reported ( Ni and Nyns, 1996 ). Particularly since the turn of this century there has been another rapid increase in the number of plants ( Fig. 1 ) ( He, 2010 ) and in 2007 there were 26.5 million biogas plants ( Chen et al., 2010 ) the overwhelming majority house- hold systems with volumes from 6 to 10 m 3 . Meanwhile, in 1999 there were over three million family-sized biogas plants in India ( Fig. 2 ) and by the end of 2007, the Indian government had provid- ed subsidy for the construction of nearly four million family-sized biogas plants ( Indian Government, 2007 ). The National Project on Biogas Development (NPBD) has run since 1981 –1982 and pro- motes its own digester designs while providing financial support and various training and development programmes. Subsidies from state and central governments to install household bioreactors ran- ged from 30% to 100% in the 1980s –1990s ( Tomar, 1995 ). Biogas appliances and the need for clean cookstoves In developing countries, cookers/stoves, lamps, refrigerators and engines are appliances commonly fuelled by biogas ( ISAT/GTZ, 1999a ). Biogas can be converted into electricity using a fuel cell, though this is still considered a research area due to the need for very clean gas and the cost of fuel cells ( Dimpl, 2010 ). In contrast, using biogas to fuel a combustion engine and in turn an electric gen- erator is a proven means of producing electricity, given the wide availability of suitable generators. For example, in Pura, India a well- studied community biogas digester was used to fuel a modi fied diesel engine and run an electrical generator ( Reddy, 2004 ). As hydrogen sulphide can corrode engine components it is typical to control its presence in the outlet flow from the digester. Contacting biogas with ferrous salts in a closed filter is a common method to achieve this. Alternatively a small amount of air can be injected into the di- gester headspace in order to facilitate biochemical hydrogen sulphide oxidation ( Dimpl, 2010 ). Biogas burns with a clean, blue flame and stoves have been considered the best means of exploiting biogas in rural areas of developing countries ( ISAT/GTZ, 1999b ) ( Fig. 3 ). Due to the physiochemical properties of biogas, commercial butane and propane burners are not suitable for biogas without modi fication. Since six litres of air are required to combust one litre of biogas, as- suming a methane composition of 60%, compared with 31 L and 24 L of air for butane and propane respectively, commercial appli- ances need larger gas jets when burning biogas. Removing water is achieved by cooling, such as in an underground pipe, to condense the moisture. The ef ficiency of biogas stoves has been quoted as 20%–56% ( Itodo et al., 2007; ISAT/GTZ, 1999b ), though such figures are strongly affect- ed by operating conditions and stove design. Moreover, many health bene fits can result from the switch from traditional to cleaner fuels. According to the World Health Organisation (WHO) over three billion people worldwide continue to use solid fuels, including wood, dung, agricultural residues and coal, to supply their energy needs ( WHO, 2011 ). Cooking with solid fuels on open fires or with traditional stoves results in high levels of air pollution, due to pollutants such as small Download 0.75 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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