I. A. Kazus Russian avant-garde architecture of the
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- The architectural profession of the twenties
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- The new relationship between architecture and the plastic arts
Mil tfll Fig. 1. Moscow, Red Square, with Kremlin, right, looking toward St. Basil's Cathedral, ca. 1905. no glass of any kind suitable for win dows existed on the building-materials market, let alone plate. When building resumed in the middle twenties, there was no shortage of the oretical and practical programs for dealing with these frustrations. The most interventionist were the Con- structivist architects, who demanded modernized techniques for those mate rials they did have, notably concrete. Donkeys were still the chief power source in building work, even on pres tigious Moscow sites. Cement mixers and cranes must be imported from Ger many or America, they demanded, "to replace our wooden machines from the age of Leonardo da Vinci" 5 (fig. 4). Their student member Ivan Leonidov believed that the building-materials industry should be producing what architects wanted for their projects, not the other way round. With a genius for pris- matically simple, essentially Suprematist spatial composition, he postulated a level of high technology in his projects that left even Lissitzky's proposals look ing technically and structurally modest; in so doing, Leonidov offered powerful ammunition to the avant-garde's critics. 6 The social priorities of the post- revolutionary years were clear and agreed upon, or at least accepted, by the architectural profession as a whole. On the other hand, the style in which such objectives should be presented, the lan guage that would most effectively convey the revolutionary social message, was a matter of heated debate. The pluralism of today may help us understand the arguments on various sides, but the diversity in the Soviet Union of the twenties, which is so well represented in the Shchusev Museum's collection, cannot be properly described as plural ism. Pluralism signifies a democratic acceptance of diversity as the natural reflection of legitimately different politi cal and philosophical viewpoints. Russian architectural circles of the Pig. 2. Fedor Shekhtel, mansion for Stepan Riabushinsky, Kachalova Street, Moscow, 1900—02: detail of the garden facade. Photograph: C. Cooke. «• Pig. 3. El Lissitzky, "Skyhook" project: one of the "horizontal skyscrapers," 1923. Prom Izvestiia ASNOVA, Moscow, 1926. twenties were no more characterized by such mutual regard than Western archi tecture was in the heyday of modernism. In retrospect, it is interesting to note not only the arguments supporting vari ous stylistic directions but also the terms of the case against modernism. The latter are remarkably similar to the objections to modernism voiced fifty years later in the West: that its build ings were joylessly "industrial" in mood, ignored the cultural heritage, and there fore failed to communicate with the myths and aspirations by which the general population lived their lives. In Russia some of these failures of com munication were the result of deep differences in cultural origin between the general population and the profes sion and also among the architects themselves. Some were the result of a theoretical battle within Bolshevism itself over the proper source of a pro letarian culture. This combination of factors produced the strange alliances that restored to prominence in the early thirties the conservative, pre- revolutionary generation of architects as executants of the aesthetic of the new dictatorship. The architectural profession of the twenties Within the Russian architectural profes sion of the twenties, we may observe the interaction between what were ef fectively four distinct groups. The first were middle-aged members of the pre- revolutionary profession who engaged positively with the new situation but did not substantially change their aesthetic positions. The second were those under forty, also with solid professional expe rience but young enough to seize the Fig. 4. Typical Moscow building laborers laying a reinforced concrete slab, ca. 1925. Fig. 5. Ivan Zholtovsky, mansion for industrialist Gustav Tarasov, Alexis Tolstoi Street, Moscow, 1909—12. Photograph: C. Cooke. new theoretical challenge of post- revolutionary society, who became lead ers of the main professional trends of the avant-garde. The third, whom we may call the younger leaders, completed their training just before the Revolution, benefiting from that solid background but lacking the opportunity to build. The fourth and youngest were the first student generation after the Revolution, enrolled in the "Free Studios" of the twenties, particularly in Moscow, who were taught the new curricula created by these older men, based on their various theories. I describe this as the "Russian" rather than the "Soviet" profession advisedly because the so-called "proletarian" grouping that emerged in the late twen ties to spearhead the attack on the avant-garde groups was substantially comprised of architects from other Soviet republics. Wot bad modernists themselves, they were as much opposed to the professional hegemony of this Russian-rooted elite as they were to the style of their architecture. The oldest of these four "generations" of Russian architects included practiced exponents of Classicism, eclecticism, and the Russian art nouveau, so-called mo- derne, before the Revolution. Firmly rooted in the social elite, they them selves constituted an artistic elite whose education at the Imperial St. Petersburg Academy or the Moscow School rivaled the best then available in the West. Most had traveled or even studied abroad. Of those whom we shall encounter as front-line professional leaders of the twenties, perhaps the most notable were Ivan Zholtovsky, Ivan Fomin, and Alexei Shchusev. The Moscow-based Zholtovsky, age fifty at the outbreak of the Revolution, was a passionate adherent of Renaissance Classicism, particularly of Palladio; he practiced widely and since 1900 had taught at the Stroganov School (fig. 5). Fomin, forty-five, was a talented de signer equally fluent in Classicism and art nouveau. Shchusev, forty-four, was a specialist in Russian traditional archi tecture and decorative arts (fig. 6). Directly behind this generation at the time of the Revolution was a cohort of architects in their upper thirties, poised to make their mark. Among those in Petrograd was Vladimir Shchuko, age thirty-nine, who had some inventively eclectic apartment buildings to his credit. The rising stars of the profession in Moscow were the Vesnin brothers— Leonid, age thirty-seven (fig. 7), Viktor and Alexander respectively two and three years younger— who for ten years had been figuring increasingly often on the prize lists of the Moscow Architec tural Society's competitions. Between the Vesnin brothers in age was Nikolai Ladovsky. The Vesnins became leaders of Constructivism in the post- revolutionary avant-garde, while Ladovsky would become leader of their rivals, the Rationalists. A bit younger than the above men, distinct in their lack of building experi ence before the Revolution but subse quently contributing equally to the theory and practice of the modernist avant-garde, was a cohort born around 1890 and graduating just before the October Revolution of 1917. Back grounds and education were more varied in this age group, but strong cre ative partnerships with members of the slightly older group were one of the dis tinctive features of the avant-garde. Here ,,>* ». < • JU i Fig. 6. Alexei Shchusev, project for the Church of Martha and Mary convent, under the patronage of the Grand Duchess Elizabeth Fedorovna, built on Bolshaia Ordynka, Moscow, 1908-12. From Ezhegodnik Obshchestva arkhitektorov-khudozhnikov (Annual of the Society of Architect-Artists), no. 4, St. Petersburg, 1909, p. 135. Fig. 7. Leonid Vesnin, project for a dacha. From Ezhegodnik Moskovskago Arkhitekt- urnago Obshchestva (Annual of the Moscow Architectural Society, MAO), no. 1, Moscow, 1909, p. 20. we have Moisei Ginzburg, co-leader of Constructivism with, the younger Ves- nins, who finished the Riga Polytechnic in Moscow in 1917 after an earlier three-year course at the Milan Academy. El Lissitzky's educational career had been very similar; he graduated from the Riga Polytechnic a year after Ginzburg left, after taking his first de gree in Darmstadt. Vladimir Krinsky finished the Academy in Petrograd in 1917 and, like Lissitzky, became closely identified with Ladovsky in Rationalism. Konstantin Melnikov graduated from the Moscow College the same year and, like his peers, would soon be back in the reorganized schools teaching, in his case with Ilia Golosov as his older part ner. Iakov Chernikhov belonged to this age group and was also soon teaching as well as studying, but a fragmented educational career put him somewhat outside the mainstream. To a man, these new recruits to the pro fession in 1917 knew the old styles intimately, as their final diploma pro jects in school had shown. In the post- revolutionary years they would argue together fiercely over the principles that should generate a "modern" architec ture, but they were united in regarding it as essentially a new phenomenon, sui generis, not a reinterpretation of the old canons. Within a year of the Revolution their former schools had been reorga nized on freer lines by government decree, and soon they were back in these schools where, especially in Moscow, they passionately debated their new the ories with colleagues from painting and literature in little "research groups," even as they taught the next generation in the studios. Members of the generation born about 1900 were the true children of the Revo lution. Their whole training, as well as their early professional experience, was conducted under the new conditions, shaped by the new social program, and limited by the new economic and techni cal constraints. From the Moscow VKhUTEMAS in particular— created by the amalgamation of the Moscow College and the Stroganov School to bring all two- and three-dimensional arts into one curriculum— young stars such as Ivan Leonidov, Mikhail Barshch, and Andrei Burov emerged to join Con structivism, Ivan Lamtsov, Mikhail Turkus, and Georgi Krutikov to join Rationalism, and Georgi Golts to pursue the teachings of Zholtovsky. I stress these age differences because they help greatly in seeing behind the mass of names to the reality of the ar tistic and professional scene of the time, and they are fundamental to the stylis tic diversity represented in the exhibition. For all the new "equalities," for all the speed with which the free debate, the frequent open competitions, and the open studio structures enabled talented newcomers to rise meteorically, the work of the leading younger archi tects does not emerge ex machina. It is the flower of inspired teaching by expe rienced people, deeply rooted in the aesthetic traditions of the best European and Russian architecture. Playing against this, however, and an equally important stimulus to innova tion, was undoubtedly the different cultural conditioning supplied by stu dents innocent of most urban aesthetics, whose basic aesthetic structures were formed in rural, peasant milieus. Thus the two greatest formal innovators of the architectural avant-garde, Ivan Leonidov and Iakov Chernikhov, brought their primal, almost carnal sense of form from childhoods spent under the Fig. 8. Sergei Maliutin, interior of the theater at Talashkino, ca. 1902, looking toward the proscenium curtain. From S. Makovsky and N. Berich, Talashkino: izdeliia masterskikh Kn. M K Tenishevoi (Talashkino: products from the workshops of Princess M. K. Tenisheva), St. Petersburg, 1905, plate 150. tough, tutorship of peasant life, in con stant hattle with rude nature, innocent of the intellectual constructs of urbanity until well after their formative years. Melnikov, too, though singled out by a middle-class patron in adolescence, had his earliest conditioning in a similar background. These people of very dif ferent social origins fitted in with one another well enough during the melee of the twenties, although Melnikov, Leonidov, and Chernikhov retained the fiery independence that does not make easy colleagues. The third stimulus to architectural innovation— perhaps the crucial medium of liberation— was the work of the artistic avant-garde, which far more strongly than the architectural profes sion had laid the foundations for its formal revolution before the political shake-up of 1917. The new relationship between architecture and the plastic arts In the Soviet Union of the twenties, as in Europe, the formal languages of the new architecture developed in close con junction with— and indeed were often led by—explorations in the two- and three-dimensional areas of the fine arts. During the years when Russia was cut off from Western contact and even liter ature by the Civil War and the Western Entente's blockade, the Neo-plasticism of Mondrian and Vantongerloo established the formal grammars for the architec ture of van Doesburg and Rietveld in Holland. Likewise in France the Purism that Corbusier and Ozenfant juxtaposed to the complex spatial structures of Cub ism became the test bed for Corbusier's own essays in concrete. Social and intel lectual linkages between painters and architects were, of course, a normal fea ture of traditional artistic culture, but the move toward abstraction in modern ism generated relationships that were far more profoundly symbiotic. Precisely because Russia immediately after the Revolution was for several years an isolated world, feeding off its own resources while the Bolsheviks gradually extended their conquests, and Western powers tried to cut their supply lines, the internal conjuncture gave unique coloration to artistic develop ments. Internal intellectual battles and alliances were being worked through within the larger revolutionary process, and many cultural shifts that paralleled Western developments, or others that represented belated cultural moderniza tion, were propagated with passionately political and ideological rationales. The traditional relationship between art and architecture operated in pre- revolutionary Russia as in the West, whether in Classicist circles around the Imperial Academy in Petersburg or in the Slavophile movement that protested against it in the later nineteenth century. This relationship was strength ened in the influential arts-and-crafts colonies of rich patrons like Sawa Mamontov or Princess Tenisheva at Abramtsevo and Talashkino respectively (fig. 8 y. Here mutual learning could take place across the conventional boundaries of artistic and craft disci plines, and activity flowed naturally into theater, opera, and fine art publishing. Both of these patrons financed such ventures as Sergei Diaghilev and Alex ander Benois's journal World of Art. 8 Firmly rooted in the Abramtsevo colony, for example, was the most important artistic confraternity in turn-of-the- century Moscow, which linked the art nouveau architect Fedor Shekhtel, writer Anton Chekhov, theater director Konstantin Stanislavsky, and the Sym bolist painter, sculptor, and ceramicist Mikhail Vrubel. 9 In its own context this was a genuine spiritual and aesthetic symbiosis, but it was naturally anathema to those ex cluded from such cultural elites. The boundaries were not just social. They were reinforced by blinkered teaching even in the relatively freer schools like the Moscow College (from which Tatlin had been dismissed for lack of aptitude) and by a very exclusive exhibitions policy in the established galleries (on which Tatlin had expressed himself in the press, as well as to Benois just before the First World War). 10 At that stage Tatlin was a young painter who had been to Paris, had seen Picasso's three-dimensional collages, and was now producing assemblages from Fig. 9. Vladimir Tatlin, Hanging Corner Relief, selection of materials, iron, aluminium, and primer, 1915. From N. Punin, Tatlin: protiv kubizma (Tatlin: against Cubism), Petersburg (Petrograd), 1921. bits of timber and metal which he called "counter-reliefs" or "selections of mate rials" (fig. 9). His principal concern, in the improvised alternative art shows of Moscow and Petrograd, was to outshine his older rival Kazimir Malevich as innovative guru within their newly abstractionist avant-garde circle. Malevich's innovations were, of course, entirely different in media and philo sophical intention. Where Tatlin declared his new subject matter to be the interaction of "real materials in real space," Malevich's concern, in his painted Suprematist canvases, was to create a new system of painterly forms that communicated the sensation of pure energy and force in the cosmic space that "is within my own skull" (fig. 10). Tatlin did not say much. Malevich addressed his public and colleagues in long, philosophical, and poetic ramblings. But between them, this extraordinary pair of talents created the two foundations, even the two formal and spatial languages, from which avant-garde architecture (quite apart from much else) would build most of its radical propositions. 11 By 1920 the thirty-five-year-old Tatlin was no longer just the young sailor- painter with a police record for "revolu tionary views." After the Revolution he had become a major figure in the new official artistic and cultural hierarchy set up by Lenin's art and culture com missar, Anatoly Lunacharsky. Tatlin now had the chance to spit at the pre- revolutionary establishment he had so despised, and to powerful ideological effect. In a statement on his Monument to the Third International, he said that before the Revolution "all foundations on which the plastic arts stood were at odds with each other, and all the con nections linking painting with sculpture and architecture had been lost. The result was individualism, i.e., the expression of merely personal habits and tastes. When artists addressed ma terial, they reduced it to the level of Pig. 10. Kazimir Malevich, Airplane Flying, 1915. The Museum of Modern Art, New York. Purchase. something they could do eccentric things with vis-a-vis one or other branch of fine art. So at best the artist decorated the walls of private mansions— of individual nests." 12 Referring to one of Fedor Shekhtel's masterpieces in Moscow, richly deco rated with thematic ceramics from the Abramtsevo studios and paintings by the great Konstantin Korovin, Tatlin mocked that artistic fraternity for "leav ing us a series of 'Iaroslavl railway sta tions' (fig. 11) and a multitude of other forms that now seem comical." While the Revolution had discredited this work, it had merely effected a social catching-up process in relation to his own, which had "already taken material, volume and construction" as its very subject matter back in 1914. "The purely artistic forms" resulting from that "research into material, volume and construction" represented, said Tatlin, "laboratory models" for the solu tion of "utilitarian tasks" posed now, after the Revolution, "in our task of creating a new world." 13 Suitably entitled "The work ahead of us," this statement encapsulated the crucial idea of the new relationship between the dif ferent scales of plastic art, integral rather than accidental, and effectively set the agenda for the whole modernist avant-garde. Among the artistic avant-garde in Rus sia after the Revolution it thus became a central principle that the proper func tion of those practices and crafts previously called "fine arts," addressed to a bourgeois market, now lay in for mal research for the larger spatial constructions required by the masses of the socialist society, that is, for build ings, urbanism, and the organization of the whole environment. 14 Precisely MOCKED - aPOOVIECKiFl EOKIWTki Fig. 11. Fedor Shekhtel, Iaroslavl Station, Moscow, 1902, drawing of main elevation. From E. Kirichenko, Fedor Shekhtel, Moscow, 1973. such, an idea underpinned Lissitzky's concept of the "Proun" as the "inter change station between painting and ar chitecture." 18 Following on from Tatlin, the Constructivist architects described their research into formal and spatial configurations as "laboratory work" for full-scale architecture. Alexander Rodchenko, who carried forward the thrust of Tatlin's ideas among the youn ger Moscow artists, would talk of his little assemblages of wooden blocks as elements of a "spatial inventory" for ap plication in larger functional tasks. 16 Malevich moved into the three- dimensional world of his arkhitektoniki with a similar intention (fig. 12). This principle became the basis of their teaching in the new schools, as well as of their own practice. To such an extent did this view become an orthodoxy across the whole spectrum of aesthetic creeds in the early twenties that leading avant-garde artists who uncom promisingly insisted on art's unique function as the reflective spiritual essay left Russia for the bourgeois West while they could. The most conspicuous to go were Vasily Kandinsky and Naum Gabo. 17 Much of the fecundity of the modernist architectural avant-garde in Russia de rives from its dual origins in these two groups, from the cross-fertilization be tween the vigorous new generations in the architectural profession and its explosively creative peer group within the other plastic arts. Certain alliances had already been formed across this interprofessional divide among the younger members before the Revolution, most notably the close friendship be tween Tatlin and Alexander Vesnin. In general, however, it was the common tasks in the immediate post- revolutionary years that threw them together. Download 96 Kb. 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