Ilimiy is tiykarlari
Download 0.53 Mb.
|
Илим изертлеу тийкарлары
|
source notes
other general notes notes on specific parts of the table; and notes on the level of probability ‘The Chicago Manual of Style’ [1993:333] If the data is taken from another source, we have an obligation to acknowledge this. The source should be identified at the bottom of the table, and labeled by the word ‘Source:’ Source: Hypothetical data Table 1.1. Attitudes towards using videos in the classroom
Types of tables Depending upon the number of variables about which information is displayed, tables can be categorized as: univariate – also known as frequency tables – containing information about one variable bivariate – also known as cross-tabulations – containing information about two variables poly-variate or multivariate – containing information about more than two variables Types of percentages The abilities to interpret data accurately and to communicate findings effectively are important skills for a researcher. For accurate and effective interpretation of data, we may need to calculate measures such as percentages cumulative percentages or ratios It is also sometimes important to apply other statistical procedures to data. The use of percentages is a common procedure in the interpretation of data. There are three types of percentage: ‘row’ percentage ‘column’ percentage and ‘total’ percentage It is important to understand the relevance, interpretation and significance of each. Row percentage – Calculated from the total of all the subcategories of one variable that are displayed along a row in different columns, in relation to only one subcategory of the other variable. Column percentage – In the same way, we can hold age at a constant level and examine variations in attitude. Total percentage – This standardizes the magnitude of each cell; that is, it gives the percentage of respondents who are classified in the subcategories of one variable in relation to the subcategories of the other variable. Graphs The main objective of a graph is to present data in a way that is easy to understand and interpret, and interesting to look at ‘A graph is based entirely on the tabled data and therefore can tell no story that cannot be learnt by inspecting a table. However, graphic representation often makes it easier to see the pertinent features of a set of data’ [Minium: 1978:45] Types of graph The type of graph we choose depends upon the type of data we are displaying. For categorical variables we can construct only bar charts histograms or pie charts whereas for continuous variables, in addition to the above line graphs or trend graphs can also be constructed. The histogram A histogram consists of a series of rectangles drawn next to each other without any space between them, each representing the frequency of a category or subcategory. Their height is in proportion to the frequency they represent. The height of the rectangles may represent the absolute or proportional frequency or the percentage of the total. As mentioned, a histogram can be drawn for both categorical and continuous variables. When interpreting a histogram we need to take into account whether it is representing categorical or continuous variables. The histogram Bar chart The bar chart or diagram is used for displaying categorical data. A bar chart is identical to a histogram, except that in a bar chart the rectangles representing the various frequencies are spaced, thus indicating that the data is categorical. The bar chart is used for variables measured on nominal or ordinal scales. The pie chart The pie chart is another way of representing data graphically, this time as a circle. There are 360 degrees in a circle, and so the full circle can be used to represent 100 per cent, or the total population. The circle or pie is divided into sections in accordance with the magnitude of each subcategory, and so each slice is in proportion to the size of each subcategory of a frequency distribution. The line diagram or trend curve A set of data measured on a continuous interval or a ratio scale can be displayed using a line diagram or trend curve. A trend line can be drawn for data pertaining to either a specific time, for example, 1995, 1996, 1997 or a period, for example, 1985-1989, 1990-1994, 1995–. If it relates to a period, the midpoint of each interval at a height commensurate with each frequency is marked as a dot. These dots are then connected with straight lines to examine trends in a phenomenon. The area chart For variables measured on an interval, information about the subcategories of a variable can also be presented in the form of an area chart. This is plotted in the same way as a line diagram but with the area under each line shaded to highlight the total magnitude of the subcategory in relation to other subcategories. The scattergram When we want to show visually how one variable changes in relation to a change in the other variable, a scattergram is extremely effective. Statistical measures They are extremely effective in communicating the findings in a precise and succinct manner. Their use in certain situations is desirable and in some it is essential, however, we can conduct a perfectly valid study without using any statistical measure. There are many statistical measures ranging from very simple to extremely complicated. On one end of the spectrum we have simple descriptive measures such as mean mode median and, on the other; there are inferential statistical measures like analysis of variance factorial analysis multiple regressions Because of its vastness, statistics is considered a separate academic discipline and before we are able to use these measures, we need to learn about them. Lecture 9 WRITING A RESEARCH REPORT In this lecture you will learn about: How to write a research report How to develop an outline for your research report Writing about a variable Different referencing systems How to write a bibliography Keywords: association, bibliography, intellectual rigour, non-spurious, spurious, outline, referencing, variable, verifiability. Report is important Although each operational step is important, in a way writing the report is the most crucial as it tells others about the outcome of our study: it is the outcome of the hard work we have put into the study and is the only thing visible to readers. As Burns writes, ‘Extremely valuable and interesting practical work may be spoiled at the last minute by a student who is not able to communicate the results easily’ [1997:229] Therefore, the whole enterprise can be spoiled if the report is not well written. The quality of report depends upon many things: the writing skills; the clarity of our thoughts and their logical expression; the knowledge of the subject; the experience in research writing. Developing an outline for the structure of the report is extremely useful. It is important to think through the contents of the report, to organize these contents around the main themes of the study, and to ensure that the various aspects of a theme are well integrated and to follow a logical progression. Research writing is controlled as we need to be extremely careful about what we write the words we choose the way ideas are expressed, and the validity and verifiability of the bases for the conclusions we draw. It must be absolutely accurate clear free of ambiguity logical and concise The writing should not be based upon assumptions. Furthermore, scientific writing requires intellectual rigour and there are certain obligations in terms of accuracy and objectivity. Developing an outline Before we start writing the report, it is good to develop an outline – ‘chapterization’. This means deciding how we are going to divide the report into different chapters and planning what will be written in each one. In developing chapterization, the sub-objectives of our study or the major significant themes that emerged from content analysis can provide immense guidance. Develop the chapters around the significant sub-objectives or themes of the study. Depending upon the importance of a theme or a sub-objective, either devote a complete chapter to it or combine it with related themes to form one chapter. The title of each chapter should be descriptive of the main theme, communicate its main thrust and be clear and concise. The title and contents of subsequent chapters depend upon what we have attempted to describe, explore, examine, establish or prove in our study. As the content of each project is different, these chapters will be different. Sample outline Introduction The development of the problem Issues regarding the problem Rationale for the study Objectives of the study Study design Sampling Measurement procedure Problems and limitations Working definitions Introduction The first chapter of the report, possibly entitled ‘Introduction’, should be a general introduction to the study, covering most of the project proposal and pointing out the deviations, if any, from the original plan. This chapter covers all the preparatory tasks undertaken prior to conducting the study, such as the literature review the theoretical framework the objectives of the study the study design the sampling strategy and the measurement procedures The study population The second chapter in quantitative research reports should provide information about the study population. Here, the relevant social, economic and demographic characteristics of the study population should be described. This chapter serves two purposes: 1. It provides readers with some background information about the population from which we collected the information so they can relate the findings to the type of population studied. 2. It helps to identify the variance within a group; for example, we may want to examine how the level of satisfaction of the consumers of a service changes with their age, gender or education. Sample outline Chapter II The study population Introduction Respondents by age Respondents by gender Marital status of the study population Ethnicity of respondents Study population by number of children Annual average income of the study population Study population by type of dwelling The outline should specify the subsections of the chapter. These subsections should be developed around the different aspects of the theme being discussed in the chapter. If we plan to correlate the information obtained from one variable with another, we should specify the variables. We should plan the sequence for discussion of the variables. In deciding this, we should keep in mind the linkage and logical progression between the sections. This does not mean that the proposed outline cannot be changed when writing the report – it is possible for it to be significantly changed. Writing about a variable When writing about the information obtained in response to a question – variable, we should write as if we were answering to the following questions: Why did I think it is important to study the variable? What effects may this variable have on the main variable I am explaining? This is where we provide our own rationale for studying the variable. In the case of a cross-tabulation, what relationships have other studies found between the variables I am analyzing? This is where the literature review is integrated into the findings of the study. What did I expect to find out in terms of the relationship between the two variables? If we have formulated a hypothesis, we should state it here. What has this study found out? We should provide the hard data from our study here, as tables graphs or text What does the data show? We should interpret the findings of the analysis. What conclusions can I draw? How do the conclusions drawn from this study compare with those from similar studies in the past? Does this study support or contradict the similar studies in the past? What explanation can I provide for the findings of this study? Chapter III Attitudes towards the problem The philosophy underpinning the model Development of the model The model in practice Perceived differences in practice before and after the introduction of the model Perceived strengths of the model Perceived weaknesses of the model Skills required for effective functioning under the model Replication of the model Reasons for change to the new model Training Indicators of success of the model Attitude of clients towards the model The model and changes in the selected indicators Part Three: Conclusions and recommendations Conclusions A: General B: Specific to the model Recommendations A: General B: Specific to the model Qualitative research Writing in qualitative research is more descriptive and narrative than analytical, hence we need to use our imagination in terms of placement of information linkage between the thoughts and flow of language to make the writing interesting to read and meaningful in conveying the findings. Referencing The report should follow an academic style of referencing. According to Butcher, there are four referencing systems from which to choose: 1. The short-title system; 2. The author–date system; 3. The reference by number system; 4. The author–number system. [Butcher:1981:226] We need to adopt the one that is acceptable to the university and academic discipline: ‘the first of these is used in most general books, the second mainly in science and social science books; the third less frequently and the fourth less frequently’ [Butcher:1981:167]. Writing a bibliography There are several well-established systems for writing a bibliography and our choice is dependent upon the preference of the discipline and university. In the social sciences some of the most commonly used ones are: The Harvard system; The American Psychological Association system; The American Medical Association system; The McGraw-Hill system; The Modern Languages Association system; The footnote system. Lecture 10 ARTICLE WRITING What is a scientific publication? Scientific publication – the main result of the researcher’s activity, presentation of the results of any research to the scientific community in order to indicate the priority of the author’s research. An article is a work that covers a topic, idea, or question in detail, contains elements of their analysis, and is intended for periodic review an existing publication or collection as an integral part of its main text. Scientific publication Article Title Author Information Abstract: A concise, formal summary of the article’s contents mirroring the organization of the article. IMRAD In scientific writing, IMRAD or IMRaD [‘ɪmræd] – Introduction, Methods, Results, and Discussion – is a common organizational structure – a document format. IMRaD is the most prominent norm for the structure of a scientific journal article of the original research type. Questions Introduction – Why did I do this study? Materials and Methods – How did I do it? Results – What did I find? Discussion – What does it mean? INTRODUCTION ‘Why did I conduct this study?’ Objectives: – Supply background information to allow readers to evaluate the results of present study without referring to previous publications. – Explain the reasons for conducting the study.
– Rationale for the study – Brief background about the subject – Study objectives – Review of the literature
‘What materials did I use?’ ‘How did I conduct the study?’
I should state in clear terms what I used for the study and how exactly I carried it out. Content: – I should study design – I should study materials – I should study what was done to the material? – I should study how were the effects measured?
‘What exactly did I find?’ Objective: – I should show the detailed results of the study in natural order, broken into subsections similar to the methods section.
– I should make key findings – I should compose texts, tables, and figures – I should do statistical analysis DISCUSSION ‘What do the results mean?’ Objectives: – I should explain the overall outcome of the study results on the specific area of study and wider implications of the research.
– I should show restatement of major findings – I should show strengths and pitfalls – I should do implications on other research – I should show unanswered questions and future research – I should make final summary and conclusion Download 0.53 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
| |||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||||