Insecurity in southern african cities
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G ENDER AND F OOD I NSECURITY IN S OUTHERN A FRICAN C ITIES The key findings to emerge from this gender analysis of the AFSUN data are the following: - holds are food insecure, compared to three out of four nuclear house- holds. - cators, including dietary diversity and months of adequate household food provisioning. poverty of these households, which are characterized by lower income and more precarious employment and livelihoods. security despite lower income. important for female-centred households in countries and cities where they are available. female-centred households than for other household types. By comparing female-centred and nuclear households, light is shed both on the determinants of urban food insecurity – which relate fundamen- tally to income, employment and education – and on the manifest gender inequalities in access to the largely income-based entitlements to food in the city. What it also shows, however, is the entrenched and systemic nature of gender discrimination and inequality, and thus the lack of any quick fixes, such as the much-touted “education for girls” strategy, as a panacea for poverty and hunger. 51 Education alone, in the absence of more fundamental social change, is evidently not sufficient to lift female-centred households out of poverty and hunger, as long as labour market discrimi- nation, unequal access to capital and resources, and culturally embedded expectations of women’s responsibility for caring and reproductive labour remain in place. These insights can be used to design and implement practical and strategic interventions that could simultaneously and synergistically address both gender inequality and food insecurity. 52 Practically, and in the immedi- ate term, interventions such as social grants and food aid, if targeted at the poorest households, will automatically capture a greater proportion of female-centred households. More strategically, the aim should be to make female-centred households less poor, and thus more food secure. Enhanc- ing food security for the urban poor requires education and training, job creation, and income generation strategies, ensuring equitable access to urban food security series no. 10
39 such opportunities for women and girls. Supporting and enabling wom- en’s engagement in such activities and enterprises – including in food pro- duction and marketing – has the potential to strengthen food security at the same time as reducing gender inequality, in a form of virtuous cycle. These findings have implications for urban, national and regional policy interventions aimed at reducing urban food insecurity. Gender analysis of the AFSUN survey findings demonstrates the importance of gender and household type in understanding the determinants of food insecurity, and can provide the basis for designing and implementing effective strategies for food security enhancement. The AFSUN data also provide a baseline against which the effects of policy changes and other interventions aimed at addressing food insecurity, including their gender impacts, can be mea- sured and monitored. E NDNOTES 1 UN-HABITAT, The State of African Cities, 2010: Governance, Inequality and Urban Land Markets (Nairobi: UN-HABITAT, 2010). 2
J. Crush and B. Frayne, The Invisible Crisis: Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, AFSUN Urban Food Security Series No. 1, Cape Town and Kingston, 2009. 3 A. Sen, Poverty and Famines: An Essay on Entitlement and Deprivation (Oxford, Clarendon, 1981). 4
Crush and Frayne, Invisible Crisis. 5
B. Frayne et al., The State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, AFSUN Urban Food Security Series No. 2, Cape Town and Kingston, 2010; B. Frayne, J. Battersby-Lennard, R. Fincham and G. Haysom, Urban Food Security in South
Division Working Paper Series No. 15, DBSA, Midrand, 2009. 6 See AFSUN Urban Food Security Series Nos. 3 to 9 at www.afsun.org 7 Sen, Poverty and Famines. 8 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, p. 7. 9 L. Patel and T. Hochfeld, “It Buys Food But Does It Change Gender Relations? Child Support Grants in Soweto, South Africa” Gender and Development 19(2) (2011): 229-40; E. Kimani-Murage, P. Holding, J-C. Fotso, A. Ezeh, N. Madise, E. Kahurani and E. Zulu, “Food Security and Nutritional Outcomes among Urban Poor Orphans in Nairobi, Kenya” Journal of Urban Health 88(S2) (2011): 282-97; L. Patel, “Poverty, Gender and Social Protection: Child Support Grants in Soweto, South Africa” Journal of Policy Practice 11(1-2) (2012): 106-20. 10 S. Atkinson, “Approaches and Actors in Urban Food Security in Developing Countries” Habitat International 19(2) (1995): 151-63. 11 A. Quisumbing, L. Brown, H. Feldstein, L. Haddad and C. Peña, Women: The
40 African Food Security Urban Network (Afsun) G ENDER AND F OOD I NSECURITY IN S OUTHERN A FRICAN C ITIES Institute, 1995); M. Vaughan, The Story of an African Famine (Cambridge; Cambridge University Press, 1987); C. Moser, Gender Planning and Development:
“‘Bargaining’ and Gender Relations: Within and Beyond the Household” Feminist Economics 3(1) (1997): 1-51. 12 E. Kennedy and P. Peters, “Household Food Security and Child Nutrition: The Interaction of Income and Gender of Household Head” World Development 20(8) (1992): 1077-85. 13 V. Reddy and R. Moletsane, “The Gendered Dimensions of Food Security in South Africa: A Review of the Literature” Gender and Development Unit, Human Sciences Research Council, Pretoria, 2009. 14 I. Tinker, Street Foods: Urban Food and Employment in Developing Countries (Oxford and New York: Oxford University Press, 1997); C. Levin, M. Ruel, S. Morris, D. Maxwell, M. Armar-Klemesu and C. Ahiadeke, “Working Women in an Urban Setting: Traders, Vendors and Food Security in Accra” World Development 27(11) (1999): 1977-91; G. Porter, F. Lyon and D. Potts, “Market Institutions and Urban Food Supply in West and Southern Africa: A Review” Progress in Development
15 D. Drakakis-Smith, T. Bowyer-Bower and D. Tevera, “Urban Poverty and Urban Agriculture: An Overview of Linkages in Harare” Habitat International 19(2) (1995): 183-93; A. Hovorka, “Urban Agriculture: Addressing Practical and Strategic Gender Needs” Development in Practice 16(1) (2006): 51-61; L. Mougeot (ed.), Agropolis: The Social, Political and Environmental Dimensions of Urban Agriculture (Ottawa: IDRC, 2005). 16 J. Bongaarts, “Household Size and Composition in the Developing World in the 1990s” Population Studies: A Journal of Demography 55(3) (2001): 263-79; D. Posel, “Who Are the Heads of Household, What Do They Do, and Is the Concept of Headship Useful? An Analysis of Headship in South Africa” Development Southern
Women’s Roles in Rural Households in KwaZulu-Natal” Journal of Southern African Studies 37(4) (2011): 831-48. 17 S. Chant, “Re-thinking the ‘Feminisation of Poverty’ in Relation to Aggregate Gender Indices” Journal of Human Development 7(2) (2006): 201-20. 18 S. Lemke, “Empowered Women and the Need to Empower Men: Gender Relations and Food Security in Black South African Households” Studies of Tribes
A. Chikanda and F. de Vletter, Gender, Migration and Remittances in Southern Africa, SAMP Migration Policy Series No. 49, Cape Town and Kingston, 2008; E. Dungumaro, “Gender Differentials in Household Structure and Socioeconomic Characteristics in South Africa” Journal of Comparative Family Studies 39(4) (2008): 429–51; A. Goebel, B. Dodson and T. Hill, “Urban Advantage or Urban Penalty? A Case Study of Female-Headed Households in a South African City” Health and
19 Levin et al., “Working Women in an Urban Setting.” 20 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa. 21 Quisimbing et al., Women: The Key to Food Security; Agarwal, “‘Bargaining’ and Gender Relations”; L. Haddad, J. Hoddinott and H. Alderman, eds., Intrahousehold
urban food security series no. 10
41 Resource Allocation in Developing Countries: Methods, Models, and Policy (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press and IFPRI, 1997). 22 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa. 23 Ibid. 24 This means that inter-city comparisons, while illustrative, are not of strictly statistically equivalent representative sample populations. 25 The normal binary household typology of female- or male-headed was replaced in the AFSUN survey with a four-fold typology: female-centred households are those with no husband/male partner in the household but can include relatives, children, and friends; male-centred households have no wife/female partner in the household but can include relatives, children, and friends; nuclear households have a husband/male partner and a wife/female partner with or without children; and extended families have a husband/male partner and a wife/female partner and children and relatives. 26 Zimbabwe was in a state of acute political and economic crisis at the time of the survey, marked by hyperinflation and food shortages; see G.Tawodzera, L. Zanamwe and J. Crush, The State of Food Insecurity in Harare, Zimbabwe, AFSUN Urban Food Security Series No. 13, Cape Town and Kingston, 2012. 27 Frayne et al., The State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, p. 25. 28 J. Coates, A. Swindale and P. Bilinsky, “Household Food Insecurity Access Scale (HFIAS) for Measurement of Food Access: Indicator Guide (Version 3)” Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development, Washington, D.C., 2007, p.18. 29 Ibid., pp. 21-2. 30 A. Swindale and P. Bilinsky, “Household Dietary Diversity Score (HDDS) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide (Version 2)” Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development, Washington, D.C., 2006. 31 P. Bilinsky and A. Swindale, “Months of Adequate Household Food Provisioning (MAHFP) for Measurement of Household Food Access: Indicator Guide” Food and Nutrition Technical Assistance Project, Academy for Educational Development, Washington, D.C., 2007. 32 This is probably because the sample was drawn from an area of the city in which urban agriculture is extensively practised, unlike most of Blantyre’s poor residential neighbourhoods. 33 Frayne et al, State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, p. 34. 34 Ibid, p. 49. 35 O. Kuku, C. Gunderson and S. Garasky, “Differences in Food Insecurity between Adults and Children in Zimbabwe” Food Policy 36(2011): 311-17. 36 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa. 37 M. Ruel, C. Levin, M. Armar-Klemesu and D. Maxwell, “Good Care Practices Can Mitigate the Negative Effects of Poverty and Low Maternal Schooling on Children’s Nutritional Status: Evidence from Accra” World Development 27 (1999): 1993-2009. 38 Afrobarometer, “Lived Poverty in Africa: Desperation, Hope and Patience” Briefing Paper No. 11, Cape Town, 2004. 42 African Food Security Urban Network (Afsun) G ENDER AND F OOD I NSECURITY IN S OUTHERN A FRICAN C ITIES 39 Patel, “Poverty, Gender and Social Protection.” 40 J. Crush and B. Frayne, “Supermarket Expansion and the Informal Food Economy in Southern African Cities: Implications for Urban Food Security” Journal of Southern African Studies 37(4) (2011): 781-807. 41 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa, p. 25. 42 Ibid. 43 Ibid. 44 HFIAP categories “food secure” and “mildly food insecure” are grouped together as food secure households. “Moderately” and “severely” food insecure categories are grouped into a single “food insecure” category. 45 Ibid., p. 34. LPI scores of <1 indicate never/seldom without. Scores >1 indicate increasingly greater degrees of deprivation. 46 Ibid., p. 37. 47 Kennedy and Peters, “Household Food Security and Child Nutrition.” 48 Frayne et al., State of Urban Food Insecurity in Southern Africa. 49 Ruel et al., “Good Care Practices.” 50 A. Hovorka, “Entrepreneurial Opportunities in Botswana: (Re)shaping Urban Agriculture Discourse” Journal of Contemporary African Studies 22(3) (2004): 367- 88. J. Crush, A. Hovorka and D. Tevera, Urban Food Production and Household Food Security in Southern African Cities, AFSUN Urban Food Security Series No. 4, Cape Town and Kingston, 2010. 51 B. Herz and G. Sperling, “What Works in Girls’ Education: Evidence and Policies from the Developing World” (Washington, D.C.: Council on Foreign Relations, 2004). 52 Moser, Gender Planning and Development. AFRICAN FOOD SECURITY URBAN NETWORK (AFSUN) AFRICAN FOOD SECURITY URBAN NETWORK (AFSUN) G ENDER AND
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A FRICAN C ITIES www.afsun.org This gender analysis of the findings of AFSUN’s baseline survey of poor urban households in eleven cities in Southern Africa in 2008 and 2009 has implications for urban, national and regional policy interventions aimed at reducing urban food insecurity. By comparing female-centred and other households, light is shed both on the determinants of urban food insecurity – which relate fundamentally to income, employment and education – and on the manifest gender inequalities in access to the largely income-based entitlements to food in the city. These insights can be used to design and implement practical and strategic interventions that could simultaneously and synergistically address both gender inequality and food insecurity. Practically, and in the immediate term, interventions such as social grants and food aid, if targeted at the poorest households, will automatically capture a greater proportion of female-centred households. Enhancing food security for the urban poor requires education and training, job creation, and income generation strategies, ensuring equitable access to such opportunities for women and girls. Supporting and enabling women’s engagement in such activities and enterprises – including in food production and marketing – has the potential to strengthen food security at the same time as reducing gender inequality, in a form of virtuous cycle. Download 0.51 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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