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Implications for Global Psychology
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- Introduction
- Chapter 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights
- Culture of Science
Implications for Global Psychology In this chapter, two theoretical arguments were examined to test the idea that culture plays a critical role in the shaping of creative behaviors. The first model was derived from Triandis’s (1994) work, whereas the second model came from Simonton’s (1996) work. Triandis (1994) presented a theoretical framework for studying human behavior in the context of culture and ecology. He suggested that both the ecology and the history of people in a certain region shape culture. Culture in turn shapes human personality through socialization in its own unique ways, and personality determines human behavior. This is not to rule out individual differ- ences, or to present culture as a tyrannical force, since humans shape culture, albeit slowly, as much as culture shapes humans. Adapting Triandis’s framework, Bhawuk (2003a) argued that culture has a direct influence on creative behavior. Socialization is the mechanism through which cultures operate, and, therefore, it can be assumed to be implicit in a culture. He posited that depending on how a culture historically evolves in its ecological niche, people in that culture would invest their efforts in choosing creative behaviors. Though all kind of creative behaviors can be found in all cultures, it is my position that in some cultures people value creative behaviors in certain areas more so than in other cultures. And in India people seem to value spirituality so much that every domain of human endeavor seems to be shaped by spirituality to some degree. 41 Implications for Global Psychology The second theoretical argument is derived from the stream of research done by Simonton (1996), who also builds on Kroeber’s works. Kroeber (1944) studied eight areas of human endeavors, i.e., philosophy, science, philology, sculpture, painting, drama, literature, and music across many literate societies, which included both Eastern and Western cultures. He concluded that since geniuses in many areas of human endeavor appear in clusters, and that they are distributed such that there is a rise and fall in the quality of what they produce, one could argue that “culture patterns” (p. 762) have a conceptual validity. Following Kroeber, Simonton (1996) concluded in a historiometric study of Japanese geniuses that genius is shaped by the cultural configuration. He found that both domain-specific and systemic (i.e., cross-domain) configurations determine how a genius or eminent achiever would be placed historically, and that these configurations operate independently and may have different loci of influence. In the Kroeberian paradigm, a cultural configuration was also found to reach its acme and exhaust itself over a period of time. On the contrary, spirituality and spiri- tual knowledge and practice have grown over the centuries in India leading to many innovations, supporting the thesis that cultures continue to produce geniuses in one or more areas of human endeavor that they particularly value, and that some cultural configurations may actually never exhaust themselves, if the domains for achieve- ment are so valued. The current innovations discussed in the three case studies could also be used as an argument to support the idea that the Indian culture is not showing signs of exhaustion with respect to spirituality. From the work of Simonton (1988, 1996) and Kroeber (1944), it is clear that culture plays an important role in the development of geniuses. These scholars have also called into question the Galtonian view of hereditary genius. Simonton (1988, 1996) has marshaled evidence in support of the Kroeberian configurations, and the Kroeberian or Simontonian (Simonton, 1984, 1994) proposition that geniuses appear in a local configuration, or new innovations are a result of the social situation, suggests that cultures develop specialized knowledge in certain areas. Therefore, it appears that culture moderates creative behavior. This perspective allows geniuses to have innate abilities, but postulates that culture moderates the channeling of the individual abilities to certain creative behaviors, i.e., geniuses put their creativity in domains that is valued in the culture. It is also clear from the work of Kroeber and Simonton that there are differences in the numbers of geniuses found across various fields within a culture, which supports the argument that culture favors certain fields over others and the idea that a culture may indeed “specialize” in a certain domain of human behavior. Also, such differences among India, Japan, and China, which are all collectivist cultures, show how a culture theory like individualism and collectivism is unable to explain cultural variation in creativity, and there is a need to study behaviors in their cultural contexts. Research in indigenous psychology can enrich our under- standing of how human behaviors are embedded in cultural contexts beyond what cross-cultural psychology can offer. In the Western tradition of research, creativity has been a subject of much research internationally, leading researchers to talk about a creativity movement (Guilford, 1980). Much of the research in creativity has focused on intelligence and 42 2 Spirituality in India: The Ever Growing Banyan Tree personality (Barron & Harrington, 1981), problem solving (Osborn, 1953), genius (Simonton, 1984), organizational creativity (Amabile, 1988), how innovations are made in such domains as music and art (Meyer, 1967), and how creativity can be taught in schools (Raina, 1980). However, very little effort has gone into examining the influence of culture on creativity. The analysis presented in this chapter shows that creativity in India is likely to be channeled in the field of spirituality, more so than in any other field. Two theo- retical arguments were presented for studying the influence of culture on creativity. The historical analysis of growth of spirituality in India supported the model that ecology and history shape culture, which in turn influences creative behaviors. Considering that many of the masters have spent an extended period of time in the Himalayas, it is likely that this part of the Indian ecology influenced the growth of spirituality. It is plausible that the harsh climate in the Himalayas and the seclusion from civilization help mendicants in withdrawing their mind inward. The case studies presented above support the argument that India continues to innovate in the field of spirituality even today. The Indian case presents preliminary evidence to support the idea that people in some cultures may value some aspect of human endeavor more than others, and thus culture moderates creative behaviors, or where geniuses will put their effort. This idea also finds support in the work of Simonton (1988, 1996), though he did not explicitly recognize this notion. The historical analysis of growth of spirituality in India and the three case studies allows us to synthesize the two theoretical perspectives into a general model of culture and creativity. It is clear that culture provides the zeitgeist for creative behaviors and influences the area of creative behavior that geniuses in a culture choose. However, geniuses also go on to shape the zeitgeist and culture in the long term in a significant way. Thus, culture, zeitgeist, and genius have reciprocal rela- tionships in shaping creative behaviors (Bhawuk 2003a; see Figure 2.1 ). History Genius Ecology Zeitgeist Culture Creative Behaviors Figure 2.1 A general model of culture and creativity 43 Implications for Global Psychology Kroeber (1944) concluded that culture periodically allows or inhibits the realization of genius. I disagree with the inhibition argument and posit that what people value in a culture will never be inhibited; rather, culture will find a way around the prevalent context to deliver geniuses. The growth of Sufism in India reflects how spirituality emerged at the confluence of Hinduism and Islam in the medieval times. The growth in the travel of the spiritual gurus from the Himalayas, the traditional home of spiritual masters, to the Western countries may be another way Indian spirituality is struggling to assert itself in the global world, which is becoming increasingly materialistic. Following this line of reasoning, it could be argued that India will continue to produce spiritual geniuses (of which Maharishi Mahesh Yogi and Rajneesh discussed in this chapter are recent examples) and may even attract spiritual geniuses from other parts of the world in its fold of which Mother Teresa may be a recent example. Mother Teresa’s Nobel Prize could be argued to be recognition of Indian spirituality, since she is the only Catholic saint to receive this prize, albeit in the form that the sponsors of the Prize can relate to. Study of genius is only one way of looking at what a culture values and where it directs (or lures!) its best human resource. The influence of culture can also be seen at the mass level (Pandey, 1998), what Kroeber (1944) referred to as the unrealized geniuses (“…eminently superior individuals [who] never get into the reckoning of history …,” p. 14). Spirituality can be seen to permeate the masses in India, and social life revolves around rituals that work as a symbolic reminder that people in this culture value spirituality. Small (e.g., weekly, fort- nightly, and annual) and big (e.g., the kUmbh melA, or festival of kUmbh, which meets every 12 years and draws millions of people, both householders and monks, to a particular place) celebrations mark the Indian lifestyle. Everyday is dedicated to a deity and one can choose a deity to offer his or her prayer. It is no surprise that India is promoted for spiritual tourism. Creativity is not captured by most of the culture theories (see Triandis & Bhawuk, 1997 for a succinct review of culture theories). It is not clear how creativity is related to individualism and collectivism or any of the other four dimensions presented by Hofstede (1980, 2001), i.e., masculinity versus femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long-term orientation or Confucianism, and power distance. The topic has generally not received much attention. Schwartz’s (1992) universal value struc- ture is the only one that touches upon creativity, but no effort has been made to use his theory to explain how culture shapes creativity. One could argue that creativity is a socio-cultural behavior, since creativity is applied to solve social problems or ecological problems that a culture faces. For example, when India was facing the British rule, many spiritual gurus addressed the issue of independence, and spiritu- ality was channeled through the idea that service to the nation was part of spirituality. Since creativity can be construed as a socio-cultural behavior, as is apparent from the study of geniuses, it is important to study the influence of culture on creativity, else we may make the mistake of imposing the Western notion of creativity on other cultures and find people in other cultures not creative. Therefore, future research should examine the socio-cultural aspects of creativity. 44 2 Spirituality in India: The Ever Growing Banyan Tree We need to critically examine such sweeping generalizations as individualists are more creative than collectivists (Triandis, 1989), or the United States is good at inventing, whereas Japan is good at refining what is already invented (Hasegawa, 1995). It is plausible that people in different cultures value different outcomes, and hence, would encourage people to channel their creativity in different domains of behaviors. Galton’s Hereditary Genius Thesis, which conceptualizes genius as natural ability that is inherited, could be called into question using the argument that culture shapes the behavior of geniuses, which was presented in this chapter. The Indian case clearly challenges the hereditary genius thesis since a spiritual guru, traditional wisdom, as well as written scriptures have it, brings saMskAra (or innate abilities) from the karma of his or her own past life, and does not inherit from his or her biological parents. The examination of many recorded lineage of spiritual paths found in India, and captured in Table 2.1 , also clearly contradicts the hereditary argument that Galton was able to demonstrate by using his long list of geniuses (Galton, 1869). The wide variation in the castes from which spiritual gurus have come also supports the traditional wisdom and contradicts the Galtonian view. Research in indigenous psychology calls for adopting a diversity of methodolo- gies, beyond the experimental method favored by Western psychology and social sciences. In this chapter, I followed all the four types of triangulation recommended for qualitative studies (Patton, 2002). I used “methods triangulation” (using more than one method, i.e., historical analysis and case method), “triangulation of source” (the table of saints was created by using many sources, and the cases were culled from more than one source), and “theory/perspective triangulation” (Triandis and Simonton’s theoretical perspectives were synthesized to present the general model of culture and creativity). I also attempted “analyst triangulation” (Patton, 2002, p.556) by obtaining feedback from expert Indologists as well as Western- educated Indians to check if they would agree with my thesis. It was encouraging to find that they all agreed with my thesis that the Indian culture values spirituality and tends to direct geniuses to that domain. I also used story telling, which has been accepted as a research tool, in narrating the stories of the three modern saints. Churchman (1971, p. 178) posited that “The Hegelian inquirer is a storyteller, and Hegel’s Thesis is that the best inquiry is the inquiry that produces stories. The underlying life of a story is its drama, not its ‘accuracy.’ …But is storytelling science? Does a system designed to tell stories well also produce knowledge?” Stories can be used for amusement or for inquiring about basic human psychology, the desires, hopes, aspirations, fears, and so forth of people. Mitroff and Kilman (1978, p. 93) argued that stories “provide the hardest body of evidence” for researchers who they labeled the Conceptual Humanist, scientists who strive to increase the welfare of the most number of people. The three cases presented in the chapter give us a better understanding of the spiritual masters, and the wide difference between what they did and how they did, which could not be understood if we did not know their “stories.” It should be noted that since only humans are known to be spiritual in the animal kingdom, by neglecting this field of human endeavor, we may be actually leaving 45 Implications for Global Psychology out one of the most important aspects of being human from social science research. We can see that an attempt to understand why spirituality is valued in the Indian culture has led to the development of a general model of culture and creativity, which was unlikely to emerge if we followed the traditional Western research para- digm. Thus, research in indigenous psychology is likely to provide new paradigms and models that cannot be developed following the Western research tradition. wwwwwwwwwwwwwwww 47 D.P.S. Bhawuk, Spirituality and Indian Psychology, International and Cultural Psychology, DOI 10.1007/978-1-4419-8110-3_3, © Springer Science+Business Media, LLC 2011 Introduction Worldview is shaped by culture, and worldview directs the choice of conceptual models, research questions, and what we do professionally as a social scientist. This chapter examines the Indian culture vis-à-vis the culture of science. First the thesis that science has a culture is laid out by recognizing the defining attributes of science. Then the Indian worldview of who we are and what we should be doing is presented, followed by an examination of how this view interacts with the culture of science and what is called scientific thinking. Research on Transcendental Meditation (TM) is presented as a vehicle to examine the interaction between Indian cultural worldview and what is called scientific thinking. Implications of this interaction for studying human value system for cultural researchers and global psychology are discussed. Worldview shapes what is “interesting” (Davis, 1971) to a great extent to a particular audience, what is considered a problem, what problem is interesting to study, and whether the goal of studying a problem is to analyze the problem, to analyze and solve the problem, or to analyze, solve, and implement the solution. Davis argued that all theories in social sciences become false over time, because they are simpli- fications of reality. He contended that some social science theories are less false than others. A theory is accepted in social science because it is “interesting,” and they persist because of their interestingness, sometimes even after they are refuted. Davis’ ideas are provocative, and they have great significance in that culture shapes what is considered interesting to a great deal. For example, though Western researchers do not consider spirituality an important research topic, it is of great interest to Asian scholars. Davis himself falls into the cultural trap when he concludes that all of the propositions that he examined were interesting only if they negated an existing one. This itself may be an aspect of Western culture. There lies the threat, even for cross-cultural researchers, in that they may make the mistake of studying concepts that are interesting (only!) from their own cultural perspective. Chapter 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights 48 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights Research by Nisbett, Peng, Choi, and Norenzayan (2001) indicates that cognitive processes differ across cultures in fundamental ways (e.g., in the process-content distinction) because they are shaped by different social systems. Nisbett et al. found East Asians to be holistic in their causal analysis and dialectic in reasoning, whereas Westerners are more analytic and tend to use formal logic. Thus, worldview shapes our cognition, and culture shapes our worldview. Our worldview not only directs the choice of conceptual models, research questions, and methods of inquiry (Danziger, 1990), but also what we do professionally as social scientists. We are all also shaped by the culture of science, which is founded on rationality and empiricism. Cultural researchers, by virtue of being both scientists and cultural scholars, are well suited to examine the interaction between the culture of science and other indigenous cultures, and examine human behavior in the context of this dynamic interaction. Culture of Science Research methodology textbooks capture the most commonly shared under- standing of how science is done. The acceptance of a textbook is dependent on how well it captures the common denominator of accepted practices. Therefore, research methodology textbooks can serve as a reliable source where we can find the distilled characteristics of science. One textbook (Rosenthal & Rosnow, 1991) noted Precision, Accuracy, and Reliability as three important characteristics of science. It is believed that science creates unambiguous knowledge by measuring facts with preci- sion, describing findings accurately, and following procedures (or using instruments) that are reliable. These three characteristics serve as the foundation of experimental work in science as well as in the social science. This necessarily leads to the study of facts and events that are quantifiable, measurable, and manipulable. If precision, accuracy, and reliability cannot be used, no scientific study can be carried out. When we discuss the basic tenets of science, or the culture of science, we must keep in mind that the culture of science, like any other culture has evolved over the years, and some of its elements were more prominent at some point in time and then lost their value to some other elements. Probably, the earliest conflict in value that scientists faced was about being objective versus subjective, about being impersonal versus personal. Through a long struggle, science has established objectivity and imper- sonalness as its basic tenets, though it has not been an easy journey, even for science. There has always existed set of antitheses or polarities, even though, to be sure, one or the other was at a given time more prominent – namely between the Galilean (or more prop- erly, Archimedean) attempt at precision and measurement … and, on the other hand, the intuitions, glimpses, daydreams, and a priori commitments that make up half the world of science in the form of a personal, private, “subjective” activity (Holton, 1973, p. 375). Scientists share a worldview, which assumes that “science rejects the indeter- minate” (Bernard, 1957, p. 55). When it comes to methodology to solve difficult problems, they believe in breaking down the problem in smaller parts and studying them in pieces. 49 Culture of Science When faced by complex questions, physiologists and physicians, as well as physicists and chemists, should divide the total problem into simpler and simpler and more and more clearly defined partial problems. They will thus reduce phenomena to their simplest possible material conditions and make application of the experimental method easier and more certain (Bernard, 1957, p. 72). Thus, science rejects the indeterminate, and scientists are objective, impersonal, and believe that the world can be partitioned into smaller parts where the total is simply the sum of the parts. For this reason, scientists are criticized to be reductionists in their approach in examining and solving problems. A scientific observation is only valid if two trained observers can come to the same conclusion, i.e., arrive at an agreement, about a phenomenon independent of each other. Campbell defined science as “the study of those judgments concerning which universal agreement can be reached (Campbell, 1952, p. 27).” Mitroff and Kilman (1978) argued that consensus building is one of the epistemic foundations of science, and they categorized scientists who believe in this as the “analytic scientist.” They criticized this approach to science by raising questions about lack of agreement on the meaning of the terms: “judgment,” “universal,” “agreement,” and “study.” They posited that it was possible to have disagreement, yet do scientific studies in social science, and questioned why science could not be founded on disagreement. Criticism aside, science is characterized by scientists’ belief in creating agreement among them about what “truth” is. For example, physicists would create agreement about what gravitation is, what latent heat of evaporation is, and so forth. Psychologists would create an agreement, for example, about how a person with a certain personality type is likely to behave in a certain situation. Management scholars might attempt to create agreement about what is an effective organizational strategy under rapid or slow changes in the environment. Another foundation of science lies in the belief that science is value-free, and scientific knowledge comprises impersonal facts from which disinterested theories are constructed. Though both the impersonal nature of facts and the disinterested nature of theories are found to be lacking in science (Churchman, 1961; Kuhn, 1962; Mitroff, 1974; Rander & Winokur, 1970), social scientists generally believe them to be the characteristics of science. Science also regards logic as something basic. For example, The Law of Contradiction, i.e., no proposition can be both true and false at the same time, and The Law of Excluded Middle, i.e., every proposition is either true or false, are taken as axioms, something that is irrefutable. If these fundamentals are contra- dicted then the experience or fact itself is to be labeled as distortion or error (Mitroff & Kilman, 1978). Scholars have criticized this notion for some time. For example, Haack (1974, p. 15) argued that at least in principle logic should not be viewed as infallible and absolute, “… none of our beliefs, the laws of logic included, is immune from revision in the light of experience. According to this view, it is at least theoretically possible that we should revise our logic.” Mitroff and Kilman (1978, p. 53) concluded that “in order to label something a scientific theory, we must be able to cast it into a logical form so that given the 50 3 Model Building from Cultural Insights proper antecedent conditions (X, A), we can make a valid deduction (Y).” They further stated that what is generally accepted as scientific requires that all scientific theories follow this form of reasoning, and whatever does not fit this cast is dismissed as nonscientific. Dewey characterized scientists as having “an obsessive quest for certainty” (Dewey, 1960, p. 244) and blamed them for pursuing certainty to the degree that they ignore the inherent uncertainty in natural processes. Thus, pursuing certainty in the face of inherent uncertainty is another defining attribute of science. We find this pursuit of certainty in the work of Campbell and Stanley (1966), who presented eight threats to internal validity in establishing whether a certain variable is the cause of an outcome (X causes Y). Their work has become the foundation of research methodology in social sciences and goes without much criticism. However, some scholars have questioned whether there are other sets of criteria that are equally meaningful. For example, Mitroff and Kilman (1978) examined these criteria and concluded that there are other desirable criteria that can be used to conduct a study, including experimental designs. They argued that avoiding these eight threats necessarily leads one to the control-group-experimental-design as the only viable research method for doing scientific research. They raised an interesting question, whether the same experimental design would be selected if other research criteria were used, and posited that there are indeed alternative sets of criteria that can be used to conduct research, and that these alternative criteria did not lead to the experimental design. They, thus, concluded that “selection of any particular experimental design is not automatic but is a function of one’s worldview [emphasis added] as well as a response to particular technical requirements” (Mitroff and Kilman, p. 47). Argyris (1968) presented a severe critique of the traditional controlled experi- mental design on two grounds. First, he argued that the controlled experiment is tyrannical much like the assembly line where workers have no control over their work. He argued that under such repressing settings the subjects often withdraw psychologically from the experiment and give wrong answers. The second ground for criticism deals with generalizability, and he argued that the findings from such experimental settings cannot be generalized to the real world and can only be valid for similar repressive settings. Champions of science glorify it on many counts. Some argue that science is the most fundamental of all disciplines, and only science, not art or literature, offers continuous progress, so much so that human progress entirely depends on it (Sarton, 1962). In almost every case wherever there is progress or a possibility of progress, this is due to science and its applications. I would never claim that science is more important than art, morality, or religion, but it is more fundamental, for progress in any direction is always subordinated to some form or other of scientific progress (Sarton, 1962, p. 45). We can say that science is characterized by its core values of rejection of the indeterminate, objectivity, impersonalness, and the belief that the world can be partitioned into smaller parts where the total is simply the sum of the parts. Science is about creating agreement among scientists about what “truth” is. 51 Culture of Science Science is value-free, and scientific knowledge comprises impersonal facts from which disinterested theories are constructed. Science pursues certainty and uses The Law of Contradiction (i.e., no proposition can be both true and false at the same time) and The Law of Excluded Middle (i.e., every proposition is either true or false). Science strives to get at the cause of certain outcomes and follows the logic, “If (X, A), then (Y).” Scientific method and practices are characterized by experimentation, measurement, precision, accuracy, reliability, and replication. Scientists compete for grants, and competition symbolizes hierarchy in method and outcomes. Practitioners of science believe that scientific discoveries are the most fundamental elements of progress in human civilization. There is much hero worship in science, and names of Newton, Marie Curie, Einstein, Louis Pasteur, Chandrasekhar, and Bose draw adulation and awe. Thus, science has all the elements of culture – values, heroes, and practices – (Hofstede, Neuijen, Ohayv, & Sanders, 1990), and these characteristics define the cultural boundaries of science. Since science is defined as everything rational, this may be the only known culture that has a rigorous formal and definitive boundary. But the practice of science is much like any culture with much variation in its informal culture (Hall, 1959) (Figure 3.1 ). Method/ Practices HEROES Values • Newton • Marie Curie • Einstein • Louis Pasteur • • Chandrasekhar Bose • Impersonalness • Objectivity • Rejection of the indeterminate • Belief that the world can be partitioned into smaller parts where the total is simply the sum of the parts • Creating agreement among scientists • Value free • Pursuit of certainty • Law of excluded middle • Law of contradiction • Precision • Accuracy • Reliability • Experiment • Measurement • Grants • Replication Download 3.52 Kb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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