International Economics
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Dominick-Salvatore-International-Economics
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Y B B' A' A Nation 2 X Y 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 ΔX −ΔY ΔY −ΔX FIGURE 3.1. Production Frontiers of Nation 1 and Nation 2 with Increasing Costs. Concave production frontiers reflect increasing opportunity costs in each nation in the production of both commodities. Thus, Nation 1 must give up more and more of Y for each additional batch of 20X that it produces. This is illustrated by downward arrows of increasing length. Similarly, Nation 2 incurs increasing opportunity costs in terms of forgone X (illustrated by the increasing length of the leftward arrows) for each additional batch of 20Y it produces. Salvatore c03.tex V2 - 10/26/2012 1:00 P.M. Page 59 3.2 The Production Frontier with Increasing Costs 59 Nation 1 also faces increasing opportunity costs in the production of Y. This could be demonstrated graphically by showing that Nation 1 has to give up increasing amounts of X for each additional batch of 20Y that it produces. However, instead of showing this for Nation 1, we demonstrate increasing opportunity costs in the production of Y with the production frontier of Nation 2 in Figure 3.1. Moving upward from point A along the production frontier of Nation 2, we observe leftward arrows of increasing length, reflecting the increasing amounts of X that Nation 2 must give up to produce each additional batch of 20Y. Thus, concave production frontiers for Nation 1 and Nation 2 reflect increasing opportunity costs in each nation in the production of both commodities. 3.2 B The Marginal Rate of Transformation The marginal rate of transformation (MRT) of X for Y refers to the amount of Y that a nation must give up to produce each additional unit of X. Thus, MRT is another name for the opportunity cost of X (the commodity measured along the horizontal axis) and is given by the (absolute) slope of the production frontier at the point of production. If in Figure 3.1 the slope of the production frontier (MRT) of Nation 1 at point A is 1 / 4 , this means that Nation 1 must give up 1 / 4 of a unit of Y to release just enough resources to produce one additional unit of X at this point. Similarly, if the slope, or MRT, equals 1 at point B , this means that Nation 1 must give up one unit of Y to produce one additional unit of X at this point. Thus, a movement from point A down to point B along the production frontier of Nation 1 involves an increase in the slope (MRT) from 1 / 4 (at point A) to 1 (at point B ) and reflects the increasing opportunity costs in producing more X. This is in contrast to the case of a straight-line production frontier (as in Chapter 2), where the opportunity cost of X is constant regardless of the level of output and is given by the constant value of the slope (MRT) of the production frontier. 3.2 C Reasons for Increasing Opportunity Costs and Different Production Frontiers We have examined the meaning of increasing opportunity costs as reflected in concave production frontiers. But how do increasing opportunity costs arise? And why are they more realistic than constant opportunity costs? Increasing opportunity costs arise because resources or factors of production (1) are not homogeneous (i.e., all units of the same factor are not identical or of the same quality) and (2) are not used in the same fixed proportion or intensity in the production of all commodities. This means that as the nation produces more of a commodity, it must utilize resources that become progressively less efficient or less suited for the production of that commodity. As a result, the nation must give up more and more of the second commodity to release just enough resources to produce each additional unit of the first commodity. For example, suppose some of a nation’s land is flat and suited for growing wheat, and some is hilly and better suited for grazing and milk production. The nation originally specialized in wheat but now wants to concentrate on producing milk. By transferring its Salvatore c03.tex V2 - 10/26/2012 1:00 P.M. Page 60 60 The Standard Theory of International Trade hilly areas from wheat growing to grazing, the nation gives up very little wheat and obtains a great deal of milk. Thus, the opportunity cost of milk in terms of the amount of wheat given up is initially small. But if this transfer process continues, eventually flat land, which is better suited for wheat growing, will have to be used for grazing. As a result, the opportunity cost of milk will rise, and the production frontier will be concave from the origin. The difference in the production frontiers of Nation 1 and Nation 2 in Figure 3.1 is due to the fact that the two nations have different factor endowments or resources at their disposal and/or use different technologies in production. In the real world, the production frontiers of different nations will usually differ, since practically no two nations have identical factor endowments (even if they could have access to the same technology). As the supply or availability of factors and/or technology changes over time, a nation’s production frontier shifts. The type and extent of these shifts depend on the type and extent of the changes that take place. These changes are examined in detail in Chapter 7, which deals with economic growth and its effect on international trade. 3.3 Community Indifference Curves So far, we have discussed production, or supply, considerations in a nation, as reflected in its production frontier. We now introduce the tastes, or demand preferences, in a nation. These are given by community (or social) indifference curves. A community indifference curve shows the various combinations of two commodities that yield equal satisfaction to the community or nation. Higher curves refer to greater satisfaction, lower curves to less satisfaction. Community indifference curves are negatively sloped and convex from the origin. To be useful, they must not cross. (Readers familiar with an individual’s indifference curves will note that community indifference curves are almost completely analogous.) 3.3 A Illustration of Community Indifference Curves Figure 3.2 shows three hypothetical indifference curves for Nation 1 and Nation 2. They differ on the assumption that tastes, or demand preferences, are different in the two nations. Points N and A give equal satisfaction to Nation 1, since they are both on indifference curve I. Points T and H refer to a higher level of satisfaction, since they are on a higher indifference curve (II). Even though T involves more of Y but less of X than A, satisfaction is greater at T because it is on indifference curve II. Point E refers to still greater satisfaction, since it is on indifference curve III. For Nation 2, A = R Download 7.1 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: |
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