Language Typology and Syntactic Description, Volume I: Clause Structure, Second edition
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Lgg Typology, Synt Description v. I - Clause structure
Parts-of-speech systems 11 Another widespread subclassification of verbs involves a distinction between active verbs, which express actions and the like, and stative verbs, which express states and the like. With regard to these subclasses, once again Langacker (1987) makes an interesting suggestion about how the semantic properties of two subclasses can shed light on their formal properties. His account of the semantics of active and stative verbs (which he calls, respectively, perfective and imperfective) is, in fact, closely related to his account of the semantics of count and mass nouns (see section 1.1). Specifically, Langacker proposes that active verbs (walk, learn) denote events conceived of as being bounded in time, much as count nouns denote entities conceived of as bounded in space. Stative verbs (love, know), by contrast, denote states of affairs conceived of as having an indeterminate extent in time, much as mass nouns denote entities conceived of as having an indeterminate extent in space. This leads him to an analysis of the situation in English where stative verbs are ordinarily used in the simple present tense for present time and active verbs in the present progressive (e.g., John loves Mary vs John is walking to school). When active verbs are used in the simple present tense, they ordinarily require a special interpretation because the bounded conception of the event cannot match with the extent of time of the speech act: habitual (Ralph drinks two martinis for lunch), imminent future (The expedition leaves tomorrow at noon), or historical present (Then he walks up to me and says . . .). To turn now to the question of the universality of the noun–verb distinction, there are, as previously noted, languages with regard to which the legitimacy of such a distinction has been denied. Probably the best-known case is that of Nootka, which has often been cited in the linguistic literature as lacking a noun–verb distinction, on the basis of the analysis by Swadesh (1939). More recently, however, Jacobsen (1976) has re-examined the Nootka data, and has shown that, while the distinction between nouns and verbs in Nootka is less obvious than it is in many other languages, there is nonetheless a reasonably clear distinction to be made. The following are the kind of examples that have been cited in support of the alleged lack of a noun–verb distinction in Nootka: (20) Mamu ·k-ma qu · ʔ as- ʔ i working-pres(indic) man-def ‘The man is working’ (21) Qu · ʔ as-ma mamu ·k- ʔ i man-pres(indic) working-def ‘The working one is a man’ As these examples indicate, the notionally noun-like root meaning ‘man’, qu · ʔ as and the notionally verb-like root meaning ‘working’, mamu ·k, show, from the point of view of a language like English, rather surprising similarities of function 12 Paul Schachter and Timothy Shopen and categorizations. Thus qu · ʔ as can function not only as an argument, as in (20), but also as a predicate, as in (21), without any accompanying copula. And mamu ·k can function not only as a predicate but also as an argument (as in (20) and (21) respectively). Moreover, both the notionally noun-like and the notionally verb-like roots may be marked either for the typically nominal category ‘definite’ (by the suffix - ʔ i) or the typically verbal category ‘present’ (by the suffix -ma). What Jacobsen points out, however, is that the functional and categorizational ranges of roots like qu · ʔ as and roots like mamu ·k, although similar, are not identical. For example, while qu · ʔ as and other notionally noun-like roots may function as arguments either with or without the suffix - ʔ i, mamu ·k and other notionally verb-like roots function as arguments only when suffixed. Compare (22) and (23): (22) Mamu ·k-ma qu · ʔ as working-pres(indic) man ‘A man is working’ (23) *Qu · ʔ as-ma mamu ·k man-pres(indic) working Moreover, some of the apparent similarities between nouns and verbs in Nootka turn out, on careful examination, to be of rather questionable significance. Thus there is evidence that Nootka tense morphemes, such as -ma in (20) and (21), are best analysed as clitics that attach to the clause-initial word, whatever category this word belongs to. (For fuller discussion, see Aikhenvald in vol. iii, chapter 1.) It thus seems clear that Nootka does distinguish nouns and verbs, although this distinction is subtler than that found in English and many other languages. Nootka is by no means alone, however, in making a fairly subtle distinc- tion between nouns and verbs. Since the characteristic function of nouns is as arguments and that of verbs is as predicates, a functional distinction between nouns and verbs becomes difficult to establish to the extent that nouns occur as predicates and verbs as arguments without any distinctive marking (such as a copula accompanying the predicative nominal or some morpheme indicating nominalization of the verb). Consider in this connection the following examples from Tagalog: (24) Nagtatrabaho ang lalaki is. working top man ‘The man is working’ (25) Lalaki ang nagtatrabaho man top is. working ‘The one who is working is a man’ |
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