Lecture Stylistics as a science. Problems of stylistic research. Plan

Noam Chomsky, an American scholar and founder of the generative linguistic school, formulated this rule in grammar that he called grammatical gradation. He constructed a scale with two poles - grammatically correct structures at one extreme point of this scale and grammatically incorrect structures at the other. The first he called grammatically marked structures, the second - unmarked structures.
The latter ones cannot be generated by the linguistic laws of the given language, therefore they cannot exist in it. If we take the Russian sentence that completely agrees with the grammatical laws of this language Решил он меня обмануть and make a word for word translation into English we'll get a grammatically incorrect structure *Decided he me to deceive.
* In Chomsky's theory grammatically incorrect (unmarked) structures are labeled with an asterisk.
A native speaker cannot produce such a sentence because it disagrees with the basic rule of word order arrangement in English. It will have to be placed at the extreme point of the pole that opposes correct or marked structures. This sentence belongs to what Chomsky calls unmarked structures.
Between these two poles there is space for the so-called semi-marked structures. These are structures marked by the deviation from lexical or grammatical valency. This means that words and grammar forms carry an unusual grammatical or referential meaning. In other terms this is called transposition, a phenomenon that destroys customary (normal, regular, standard) valences and thus creates expressiveness of the utterance.
2. Grammatical metaphor and types of grammatical transposition
Some scholars (e. g. Prof. E. I. Shendels) use the term grammatical metaphor for this kind of phenomena .We know that lexical metaphor is based on the transfer of the name of one object on to another due to some common ground. The same mechanism works in the formation of a grammatical metaphor.
Linguistic units, such as words, possess not only lexical meanings but also grammatical ones that are correlated with extra-linguistic reality. Such grammatical categories as plurality and singularity reflect the distinction between a multitude and oneness in the real world. Such classifying grammatical meanings as the noun, the verb or the adjective represent objects, actions and qualities that exist in this world. Howev­er this extra-linguistic reality may be represented in different languages in a different way. The notion of definiteness or indefiniteness is gram­matically expressed in English by a special class of words - the article. In Russian it's expressed differently. Gender exists as a grammatical category of the noun in Russian but not in English and so on.
A grammatical form, as well as a lexical unit possesses a denotative and connotative meaning. There are at least three types of denotative grammatical meanings. Two of these have some kind of reference with the extra-linguistic reality and one has zero denotation, i.e, there is no reference between the grammatical meaning and outside world.
1. The first type of grammatical denotation reflects relations of objects in outside reality such as singularity and plurality.
2. The second type denotes the relation of the speaker to the first type of denotation. It shows how objective relations are perceived by reactions to the outside world. This type of denotative meaning is expressed by such categories as modality, voice, definiteness and indefiniteness.
3. The third type of denotative meaning has no reference to the extra-linguistic reality. This is an intralinguistc denotation, conveying relations among linguistic units proper, e.g. the formation of past tense forms of regular and irregular verbs.
Denotative meanings show what this or that grammatical form desig­nates but they do not show how they express the same relation. How­ever a grammatical form may carry additional expressive information, it can evoke associations, emotions and impressions. It may connote as well as denote. Connotations aroused by a grammatical form are ad­herent subjective components, such as expressive or intensified mean­ing, emotive or evaluative colouring. The new eonnotative meaning of grammatical forms appears when we observe a certain clash between form and meaning or deviation in the norm of use of some forms. The stylistic effect produced is often called grammatical metaphor.
According to Shendels we may speak of grammatical metaphor when there is a transposition (transfer) of a grammatical form from one type of grammatical relation to another. In such cases we deal with a redistribution of grammatical and lexical meanings that create new connotations.