Levels of phonetic investigation

Motor theory

One issue of this kind that has been extensively discussed is the so-called motor theory of speech perception. There is a great deal of evidence that the way in which people speak greatly influences their perception of what is said to them. For example, speakers of Spanish cannot pronounce the different vowels in words such as ship and sheep in English. These people also have difficulty in hearing the difference between these two vowels. But when they have learned, by trial and error methods, to say them correctly, then they can easily hear the difference. Similarly, using synthetic speech stimuli it is possible to make a series of consonant sounds that go by acoustically equidistant steps from [b] through [d] to [g]. When listeners hear these synthetic sounds they do not consider the steps between them to be auditorily equidistant. The steps that correspond to the large articulatory movements between the consonants are heard as being much larger than the equal size acoustic steps that do not correspond to articulatory movements occurring in the listener’s speech. Facts such as these have led some phoneticians to believe that the perception of speech is structured more in motor—articulatory—terms than in acoustic terms. Other phoneticians have claimed that the evidence does not really distinguish between these two possibilities but demonstrates simply that the perception of speech is structured in terms of linguistic categories.

Perception of speech

Another major problem is the size of the units that are involved in the perception of speech. Some authorities have claimed that a listener distinguishes between words by making a series of binary decisions concerning the features in each segment that he hears. Others hold that the listener takes in information in much larger temporal pieces and perhaps processes speech in terms of units of at least the size of a syllable. All authorities agree on the importance of context in the processing of information. Speech conveys information in a redundant way. Experiments have shown that a listener need attend to only a part of the information presented to him in order to understand all that is being said.
A related problem is that of the temporal structure of speech production. There may be very little structure, and a speaker may simply time the movements of his vocal organs by allowing each gesture to run its course before starting on the next one. Alternatively, he may impose a hierarchical structure on the gestures by requiring, for instance, each major stress in a sentence to occur at some predetermined moment, and the articulatory movements to be speeded up or slowed down depending on the number of movements that have to occur before the major stress. There is some evidence in favour of this latter possibility as a result of experiments in which a speaker is asked to say a given phrase first slowly and then fast. When he is speaking at a rate that is twice as fast as some other rate, then the interval between the major stresses is about halved. But the duration of each segment is not halved. The consonants are only slightly reduced in length, whereas the vowels are considerably shortened. Some authorities have used the results of experiments of this kind to argue that the stress group is the major unit in the temporal organization of speech.

Conclusion

The study of phonology provides a better understanding of the correlation between the motor cortex, cranial nerves, and the articulatory organs. The motor cortex is the control center for speech production, and if there is an insult to this area then controlled speech production will be difficult to retain. This also holds for the cranial nerves, which provide the connection from the motor cortex to the articulatory organs. If speech disorder is the result of a damaged articulatory system, then controlled speech production may be restored to a certain degree.
Tests have been developed to help diagnose probable speech disorder and locate problematic areas of speech production. Neurologists use these tests to diagnose speech disorders such as dysarthria in patients with dementia. Phonology is one of the more concrete areas of language and language problems.

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