Mavzu: Accommodation and audience design Bajardi: Dadajonova Maftuna Tekshirdi

Referat

Mavzu: Accommodation and audience design

Bajardi:Dadajonova Maftuna
Tekshirdi:Azimova Muxtasarxon

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  CONVERSATIONAL STRUCTURE
  
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  Definition of Conversation Analysis
  
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  Sacks, Schegloff and Jefferson (1974) described conversation as a way of using language socially, of ‘ doing things with words’ together with other persons. Conversation has its own dynamic structure and rules and it is organized in sequence in order to make the conversation meaningful, enjoyable and understandable. There are two kinds of purpose of conversation.
  
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  – Transactional : to obtain good or services, to organize some sort of action, to pass on real information
  
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  – Interactional : used when people relate to each other
  
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  Conversation analysis studies the conversational structure used by people practice when carrying a conversation. The main focus for conversation analyst is to capture the structuring that people practice when carrying on a conversation. Conversational structure is methods used by speakers to structure conversation efficiently or management of conversational turn.
  
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  The structure of Conversation:
  
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  Openings
  
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  Initiating exchanges that establish social relations
  
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  Middle
  
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  Topic negotiation and development
  
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  Turn taking mechanics
  
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  Feedback
  
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  Closings
  
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  Pre-closing exchanges
  
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  Closings
  
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  Main Points of Conversational structure
  
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The purposes of arranging conversational structure are keeping the flow of conversation going and avoiding ‘overlap’ and ‘conversational traffic jam’. Overlap in conversation happens when both speakers speaking at the same time. It can be caused by the speaker who isn’t interested to listen any answer or response from the listener. The other reason can be competition between speakers in speaking the topic. The speaker who upgrades most wins the conversation. There are two terms that relate to CA. They are turn taking and sequence.Turn taking

What is turn? It is a time during which a single participant speaks, within a typical, orderly arrangement in which participants speak with minimal overlap and gap between them. Speaker should know when he should stop and when he should speak now or later. We may start with obvious observation that conversation is characterized by turn taking: one participant, A, talks, stops, another, B, starts, talks, stops, and so we obtain A-B-A-B distribution of talk across two participants.
In turn taking, speakers know who should talk and when. Sacks, Schegloff & Jefferson (1974, 1978) suggest that the mechanism that governs turn-taking, and sccounts for the properties noted, is a set of rules with ordered options which operates on a turn-by-turn basis, and can thus be termed a local management system. This is called by Transition Relevance Places (TRPs)
Operating on the turn-units are the following rules, where C is current speaker, N is next speaker, and TRPs is recognizable end of a turn-constructional unit:
a) If C selects N in current turn, then C must stop speaking, and N must speak next, transition occuring at the first TRP after N-selection.
b) If C does not select N, then any (other) party may self-select, first speaker gaining rights to the nest turn.
c) If C has not selected N, and no other party self-selects under option (b), then C may continue.

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  Sequence
  
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  It is a unit of conversation that consists of two or more and adjacent functionally related turns. Sequencing plays an important role in the structuring of our conversation, not only on the level of formal signals, but also on the level of what the utterances mean, or of how they function.
  
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  Types of Sequences
  
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  • Adjacency pairs
  
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  • Pre-sequences
  
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  • Insertion sequences
  
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  Adjacency pairs
  
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  An adjacency pair is a unit of conversation that contains an exchange of one turn each by two speakers. The turns are functionally related to each other in such a fashion that the first turn requires a certain type or range of types of second turn.
  
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  There are some functions of adjacency pairs. First, adjacency pairs are used for starting and closing a conversation. Second, adjacency pairs are used for moves in conversations. Third, first utterance in adjacency pair has the function of selecting next speaker. Fourth, adjacency pairs are used for remedial exchanges. Fifth, components in adjacency pairs can be used to build longer sequences.Pre-sequences
  
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  Pre-sequence is a sequence which includes a turn recognizable as potential initiation of another specific type of turn..
  
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  Example:
  
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  summon is a turn preceding an explanation
  
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  A: Mummy. (summon)
  
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  B: Yes dear answer
  
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  A: I need a hat. (explanation for summon)
  
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  Common types of Pre-sequences
  
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  pre-selfidentification (e.g., Hi! )
  
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  pre-invitation (e.g., Are you free tonight?)
  
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  pre-announcement (e.g., You won’t believe this.)
  
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  pre-arrangement (e.g., Would you like to make an appointment later on?)
  
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  pre-request (e.g., Do you have coffee to go?)
  
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  pre-closing (e.g., Okay) etc
  
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  Inserting Sequence
  
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  An insertion sequence is a sequence of turns that intervenes between the first and second parts of an adjacency pair. The topic of the insertion sequence is related to that of the main sequence in which it occurs and the question from the main sequence is returned to and answered after the insertion. The normal flow of the conversation is not stopped in this case.
  
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  Example:
  
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  Agent: Do you want the early flight?
  
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  Client: What time does it arrive?
  
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  Agent: Nine forty-five
  
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  Client: Yeah – that’s great
  
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  Inserting sequences is also a kind of delay. A delay is an item used to put off a dispreferred second part. Dispreferred second part is a second part of an adjacency pair that consists of a response to the first part that is generally to be avoided or not expected.
  
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  – A refusal in response to a request, offer, or invitation
  
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  – A disagreement in response to an assessment
  
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  – An unexpected answer in response to a question
  
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  – An admission in response to blame