O’ganilayotgan til nazariy aspektlari (nazariy grammatika, leksikologiya, stilistika)
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partial. We speak of complete parallelism when
successive sentences fully coincide in their structure. In case of partial parallelism successive sentences are similar only to some extent. Complete parallelism: The warm sun is failing, the bleak wind is wailing. The bare bows are sighing, the pale flowers are dying. Partial parallelism: The wind blew faster, it dragged now at his coat, it blew its space about him, it echoed silently a lonely spaciousness. Very often parallelism is combined with other syntactical devices, such as gradation and antithesis, which are based on parallel sentences. Gradation is a syntactical pattern in which every following structure or unit is more significant that the preceding one. Gradation I wanted to explain, I wanted to come down from the witness box and tell them that I’d loved Joey, I’d worshiped Joey, I’d do anything to make him come alive again. In antithesis one thing or concept is contrasted to its opposite. Antithesis Life is much flattered, death is much traduced. Son looked perplexed, and other people looked profound. 15.Functional styles of the English language. It’s now time to outline the general principles on which functional styles rest. A Functional Style of Language is a System of Interrelated language Means Which Serves A Definite Aim in Communication. A functional style is thus to be regarded as the product of a certain concrete task set by the sender of the message. Functional styles appear mainly in the literary standard of a language. The literary standard of the English language, like that of any other developed language, is not homogeneous as it may seem. In fact the standard English literary language in the course of its development has fallen into several subsystems each other of which has acquired its own peculiarities which are typical of the given functional style .The members of the language community, especially those who are sufficiently trained and responsive to language variations, recognize these styles as independent wholes .The peculiar choice of language means is primarily predetermined by the aim of the communication with the result that a more or less closed system is built up. One set of language media stands in opposition to other sets of language media with other aims, and these other sets have other choices and arrangements of language means. As has already been mentioned, functional styles are the product of the development of the written variety of language.*Each FS may be characterized by a number of distinctive feature, leading or subordinate, constant or changing, obligatory or optional. Most of the FSs, however, are perceived as independent wholes due to a peculiar combination and interrelation of features common to all with the leading ones of each FS. ch FS in subdivided into a number of substyles. These represent varieties of the abstract invariant. Each variety has basic features common to all the varieties of the given FS and peculiar. Features typical of this variety alone. Still a substyle can, in some cases, deviate so far from the invariant that in its extreme it may even break away. The classification presented here is by no means arbitrary. It is the result of long and minute observations of factual material in which not only peculiarities of language usage were taken into account but also extralinguistic data, in particular the purport of the communication. However, we admit that, this classification is not proof against criticism. Other schemes may possibly be elaborated and highlighted by different approaches to the problem of functional styles. The classification of FSs is not bound to reflect more than one angle of vision. Thus, for example, some stylistic consider that newspaper articles should be classed under the functional style of newspaper language, notunder the language of publicistic literature. Others insist on including the language of everyday- life discourse into the system of functional styles. There are only two main functional styles: the language of science and that of emotive literature.* 16. Publicistic style Publicistic style has spoken varieties, in particular, the oratorical substyle. The new spoken varieties are the radio commentary, the essay and articles. The general aim of publicistic style is to exert a constant and deep influence on public opinion, to convince the reader or the listener that the interpretation given by the writer or the speaker is the only correct one and to cause him to accept the point of view expressed in the speech, essays or article. Due to its characteristic combination of logical argumentation and emotional appeal, publicistic style has features in common with the style of scientific prose, on the one hand, and that of emotive prose, on the other. Its emotional appeal is generally achieved by the use of words with emotive meaning; but the stylistic devices are not fresh or genuine. Publicistic style is also characterized by brevity of expression. 1. Oratory and speeches Oratorical style is the oral subdivision of the publicistic style. Direct contact with the listeners permits the combination of the syntactical, lexical and phonetic peculiarities of both the written and spoken varieties of language. Certain typical features of the spoken variety of speech present in this style are: direct address to the audience (ladies and gentlemen, honorable member(s), the use of the 2 nd person pronoun you, etc.), sometimes constractions (I’ll, won’t, haven’t, isn’t and others) and the use of colloquial words. The stylistic devices employed in oratorical style are determined by the conditions of communication. Repetition can be regarded as the most typical stylistic device of English oratorical style. Almost any piece of oratory will have parallel constructions, antithesis, suspense, climax, rhetorical questions and questions-in-the-narrative. 2. The essay The essay is a literary composition of moderate length on philosophical, social, aesthetic or literary subjects. It never goes deep into the subject, but merely touches upon the surface. Personality in the treatment of theme and naturalness of expression are 2 of the most obvious characteristics of the essay. An essay is rather a series of personal and witty comments than a finished argument or a conclusive examination of any matter. This literary genre has definite linguistic traits which shape the essay as a variety of publicistic style. In the 19 th century the essay as a literary term gradually changed into what we now call the journalistic article or feature article which covers all kinds of subjects from politics, philosophy or aesthetics to travel, sport and fashions. Feature articles are generally published in newspapers, especially weeklies and Sunday editions. In comparison with oratorical style, the essay aims at a more lasting, hence at a slower effect. 3. Articles Irrespective of the character of the magazine and the divergence of subject matter – whether it is political, literary, popular-scientific or satirical, all the features of publistic style are to be found in any article. The character of the magazine as well as the subject chosen affects the choice and use of stylistic devices. There are popular scientific articles, satirical articles, political magazine articles, newspaper articles, etc. +Literary reviews stand closer to essay both by their content and by their linguistic form. More abstract words of logical meaning are used in them, they more often resort to emotional language and less frequently to traditional set expressions. 17. Newspaper Style The word newspaper suggests that its main function is to give news. Despite this, it is used to educate, enlighten or entertain people. The newspaper also seeks to influence public opinion on political, economic and other matters. Newspapers can provide a medium of information to those who do not have television, radio or the internet. According to J. Tunstall (1996) as cited by D. Reah et al (1998:2) there are three types of newspapers: 1. The broadsheet newspapers (e.g., the Telegraph, the Independent, the Times and the Guardian); 2. The middle-range tabloids (e.g., the Express and the Daily Mail); 3. Tabloids (e.g., the Sun, the Mirror, the Star). The tabloids and broadsheet newspapers have different functions to perform. As The New British Politics (2007:301) states, tabloids are less serious (popular) daily or Sunday papers so called because of their smaller size. It is added that the broadsheets now publish in a tabloid format, but are still known as broadsheets, or quality papers. It should be mentioned that tabloids tend to focus on personalities and gossip, stories found in these newspapers are smaller comparing to broadsheets, the writing style is less formal and slangy, more pictures are found. While the broadsheets are described as serious (quality) national daily or Sunday papers so called because of their size (Ibid). It is generally believed that broadsheets contain more serious news than tabloids and are read by more educated people. Information in the middle-range tabloids focuses on the sensational stories as well as on the important news events. There are two types of news that can be found in broadsheets or tabloids: hard news and soft news. C. Rich (2010:17) points out that ―hard news― include stories of a timely nature about events or conflicts that have just happened or are about to happen such as fires, crimes, meetings, protest rallies, speeches and testimony in court cases. Hard news has little value after 24-48 hours. The news of such themes found in broadsheet newspapers tend to focus on the main and the most important details related to the story. Another type of news is called soft news and Rich (Ibid) states that ―soft news― entertains or informs, with an emphasis on human interests and novelty and less immediacy than hard news. Unlike the hard news, soft news pay attention to the things related to the minor things of the story e.g. personal life, work, etc. 9 It should be mentioned that the distinction between the two types of newspapers disappears as broadsheets tend to entertain more and tabloids include more serious articles. However, the use of gimmicks, allusions, pictures and images for entertainment purpose in broadsheet newspapers are rather of educational nature. 18. The Style of Official Documents Substyles:1) Language of business letters;2) Language of legal documents;3) Language of diplomacy;4) Language of military documents; The aim:1). to reach agreement between two contracting parties;2.) to state the conditions binding two parties in an understanding. Each of substyles of official documents makes use of special terms. Legal documents: military documents, diplomatic documents. The documents use set expressions inherited from early Victorian period. This vocabulary is conservative. Legal documents contain a large proportion of formal and archaic words used in their dictionary meaning. In diplomatic and legal documents many words have Latin and French origin. There are a lot of abbreviations and conventional symbols. The most noticable feature of grammar is the compositional pattern. Every document has its own stereotyped form. The form itself is informative and tells you with what kind of letter we deal with. Business letters contain: heading, addressing, salutation, the opening, the body, the closing, complimentary clause, the signature. Syntactical features of business letters are - the predominance of extended simple and complex sentences, wide use of participial constructions, homogeneous members. Morphological peculiarities are passive constructions, they make the letters impersonal. There is a tendency to avoid pronoun reference. Its typical feature is to frame equally important factors and to divide them by members in order to avoid ambiguity of the wrong interpretation. Morphological features: a) Adherence to the norm, sometimes outdated or even archaic, e. g. in legal documents. Syntactical features: a) Use of long complex sentences with several types of coordination and subordination (up to 70 % of the text). b) Use of passive and participial constructions, numerous connectives. c) Use of objects, attributes and all sorts of modifiers in the identifying and explanatory function. d) Extensive use of detached constructions and parenthesis. e) Use of participle I and participle II as openers in the initial expository statement. f) Combining several statements into one sentence. g) Information texts are based on standard normative syntax reasonably simplified. Lexical features: a) Prevalence of stylistically neutral and bookish vocabulary. b) Use of terminology, e. g. legal: acquittal, testimony, aggravated larceny; commercial: advance payment, insurance, wholesale, etc. c) Use of proper names (names of enterprises, companies, etc.) and titles. d) Abstraction of persons, e.g. use of party instead of the name. e) Officialese vocabulary: clichés, opening and conclusive phrases. f) Conventional and archaic forms and words: kinsman, hereof, thereto, thereby. g) Foreign words, especially Latin and French: status quo, force majeure, persona non grata. h) Abbreviations, contractions, conventional symbols: M. P. (member of Parliament), Ltd (limited), $, etc. i) Use of words in their primary denotative meaning. j) Absence of tropes, no evaluative and emotive colouring of vocabulary. k) Seldom use of substitute words: it, one, that. Compositional features: a) Special compositional design: coded graphical layout, clear-cut subdivision of texts into units of information; logical arrangement of these units, order-of-priority organization of content and information. b) Conventional composition of treaties, agreements, protocols, etc.: division into two parts, a preamble and a main part. c) Use of stereotyped, official phraseology. d) Accurate use of punctuation. e) Generally objective, concrete, unemotional and impersonal style of narration. 19.Using literary texts to develop language skills Literature comes to identify collection of texts. A work of literature is equated with a collection of stories, poems, and plays that mainly focused upon a particular text. Literature is generally used in English Language Teaching (ELT) for the development of knowledge about the language. It helps the learners to get familiar with the socio-political backgrounds of target language society and also makes them understand how communication takes place in a particular community. This broadens the understanding of human nature. Literature deals with universal issues by creating a thought among the people that they are also the part of the whole humanity. People can learn the various structures and functions of language through literary text. It inculcates their communicative skill of the language. It is a part of communicative language learning. It supports the positive view of using literature in language learning and shows that literary texts especially stories can be used in the language learning for developing the major skills as well as different sub-skills of the learners. There are various reasons for reading an ideal literary work. One of the main reasons is, it enables the reader to learn the language. By reading literature the reader can develop language skills unconsciously without much effort. It helps the learners to get familiar with the sociopolitical backgrounds of target language society and also makes them understand how communication takes place in a particular community. This broadens the understanding of human nature. Literature deals with universal issues by creating a thought among the people that they are also the part of the whole humanity. Language learning through literature has four main advantages. They are To facilitate intelligence and sensibility training To stimulate students’ creative and literary imagination To improve students’ general cultural awareness To enhance the psycholinguistic aspect of language learning. Literature provides authentic material. The learners are exposed to actual language samples from real life and literature acts as a beneficial complement to such materials.Using literature in English Language Teaching has beneficial to facilitate intelligence and sensibility training, to stimulate students’ creative and literary imagination, to improve students’ general cultural awareness, and to enhance the psycholinguistic aspect of language learning. Brumfit and Carter (1986:15) assert the point that “a literary text is authentic text, real language in context, to which we can respond directly”. Such a text securely grips the reader’s imagination and makes scopes for the examination of the language as well. Literature may provide the appropriate way of stimulating the acquisition and learning of languages by providing meaningful and memorable contexts for processing and interpreting new language. Reading literature, however, also increases learners’ awareness of language use since literary texts present language in discourse set in different social contexts. 20. Guide to Literary Analysis To analyze, by definition, is to examine, in detail, the structure/makeup of something with the purpose of explaining or interpreting how its parts work together. A literary analysis is a paper on one, or many, of the key elements in a text and how they support a main idea or purpose. When writing a literary analysis, you are not just identifying elements in a text, but analyzing those specific elements. Step 1: Identify the Author’s Purpose Identifying the author’s purpose will serve as the thesis/backbone of your paper. There will be many purposes uncovered as you read, but choose the one that speaks most to you. This is also defined as a theme of the text. A theme is an abstract concept that portrays a message, claim, or life lesson. To analyze, by definition, is to examine, in detail, the structure/makeup of something with the purpose of explaining or interpreting how its parts work together. A literary analysis is a paper on one, or many, of the key elements in a text and how they support a main idea or purpose. When writing a literary analysis, you are not just identifying elements in a text, but analyzing those specific elements. Examples of Purpose: In the text ‘Romeo and Juliet’ by William Shakespeare, a main theme is forbidden love. In the text ‘The Fault in our Stars’ by John Green, a main theme is death and coming to terms with morality in the face of illness. Step 2: Analyze Key Elements After a purpose is identified, the next step is to figure out how the author portrays this theme and why you came to the conclusion that this theme is both important and prevalent. The elements to be analyzed are plot, setting, characters, point of view, figurative language, and style. This will serve as the evidence/support throughout your paper. Plot: What main conflicts occurred throughout the story? What are the main events of the story? What is the order of these events? Does the order have significance to the purpose? Setting: Is there anything to note about the role that time of day plays in the story? Is the location or changing of location significant to the purpose of the overall piece? Does the author intentionally bring forth any social or cultural contexts to aid their purpose? Characters: How do the characters change throughout the story? What caused or provoked this change? Who is the protagonist? Antagonist? Point of View: What is the point of view? Why do you think the author chose to write in this perspective? What does this specific perspective add/take away from the story? Style: How does the format of the text affect the overall piece? Does the word choice play a role in the understanding/interpretation of the text? Are simple, plain words used, or does the writer use higher, more elevated language? Figurative Language: Where and how are metaphors, similes, symbols, etc. used in the story? What are their purposes in the overall functionality of the text? Why did the author choose to use these specific examples of figurative language? Step 3: Connect Ideas After you have identified a purpose and the key elements in the story, you need to connect the two together. In order to do this, you need to be sure to keep the purpose in mind at all times and remember that every element analysis should be geared towards its role in explaining or emphasizing the purpose you have chose to focus on. Purpose: Shel Silverstein portrays the theme of a mother’s love and the extent to which they will go to make their children happy. Plot: “The Giving Tree” is about the relationship between a young boy and a tree and how their relationship changes over time as the boy grows up, becomes more demanding, and has less time to visit and interact with the tree. The tree sacrifices all she can to make the boy happy, no matter how harmful it is for Setting: With the passage of time, the boy ages and his and the tree’s relationship becomes more and more distressed. The tree is only happy when the boy is there with her, yet he is able to spend less and less time with her as he grows older, resulting in her frequent sadness. 21 EVALUATING A STORY Any work of fiction consists of relatively independent elements — narration, description, dialogue, interior monologue, digressions, etc. Narration is dynamic, it gives a continuous account of events, while description is static, it is a verbal portraiture of an object, person or scene. It may be detailed and direct or impressionistic, giving few but striking details. Through the dialogue the characters are better portrayed, it also brings the action nearer to the reader, makes it seem more swift and more intense. Interior monologue renders the thoughts and feelings of a character. Digression consists of an insertion of material that has no immediate relation to the theme or action. It may be lyrical, philosophical or critical. The interrelation between different components of a literary text is called composition. Most novels and stories have plots. Every plot is an arrangement of meaningful events. No matter how insignificant or deceptively casual, the events of the story are meant to suggest the character's morals and motives. Sometimes a plot follows the chronological order of events. At other times there are jumps back and forth in time (flashbacks and foreshadowing). The four structural components of the plot are exposition, complication, climax and denouement. Exposition contains a short presentation of time, place and characters of the story. It is usually to be found at the beginning of the story, but may also be" interwoven in the narrative by means of flashbacks, so that the reader gradually comes to know the characters and events leading up to the present situation. Complication is a separate incident helping to unfold the action, and might involve thoughts and feelings as well. Climax is the decisive moment on which the fate of the characters and the final action depend. It is the point at which the forces in the conflict reach the highest intensity. Denouement means "the untying of a knot" which is precisely what happens in this phase. Not all stories have a denouement. Some stories end right after the climax, leaving it up to the reader to judge what will be the outcome of the conflict. The way a story is presented is a key element in fictional structure. This involves both the angle of vision, the point from which the people, events, and other details are viewed, and also the words of the story. The view aspect is called the focus or point of view, and the verbal aspect the voice. It is important to distinguish between the author, the person who wrote the story, and the narrator, the person or voice telling the story. The author may select a first-person narrative, when one of the characters tells of things that only he or she saw and felt. In a third-person narrative the omniscient author moves in and out of peoples thoughts and comments freely on what the characters think, say and do. Most writers of the short story attempt to create characters who strike us, not as stereotypes, but as unique individuals. Characters are called round if they are complex and develop or change in the course of the story. Flat characters are usually one-sided, constructed round a single trait; if two characters have distinctly opposing features, one serves as a foil to the other, and the contrast between them becomes more apparent. Round and flat characters have different functions in the conflict of the story. The conflict may be external, i.e. between human beings or between man and the environment (individual against nature, individual against the established order/values in the society). The internal conflict takes place in the mind, here the character is torn between opposing features of his personality. The two parties in the conflict are called the protagonist and his or her antagonist. The description of the different aspects (physical, moral, social) of a character is known as characterization when the author describes the character himself, or makes another do it, it is direct characterization. When the author shows the character in action, and lets the reader judge for himself the author uses the indirect method of characterization. The particular time and physical location of the story form the setting. Such details as the time of the year, certain parts of - the landscape, the weather, colours, sounds, or other seemingly uninteresting details may be of great importance. The setting can have various functions in a given story: 1) it can provide a realistic background, 2) it can evoke the necessary atmosphere, 3) it can help describe the characters indirectly. The author's choice of characters, events, situations, details and his choice of words is by no means accidental. Whatever leads us to enter the author's attitude to his subject matter is called tone. Like the tone of voice, the tone of a story may communicate amusement, anger, affection, sorrow, contempt. The theme of a story is like unifying general idea about Life that the entire story reveals. The author rarely gives a direct statement of the theme in a story. It is up to the reader to collect and combine all his observations and finally to try to formulate the idea illustrated by the story. The most important generalization the author expresses is sometimes referred to as the message. The message depends on the writer's outlook, and the reader may either share it or not. There are no hard and fast rules about text interpretation but one is usually expected to sum up the contents and express his overall view of the story. The following questions will be useful in the analysis if a story. 22.Analyzing the author’s style Analyzing an author's style involves analyzing the writer's unique way of communicating ideas. Styles in writing are created deliberately by the author to convey a specific mood or effect. Style is often aligned with pathos, since its figures of speech are often employed to persuade through emotional appeals. However, style has just as much to do with ethos, for an author’s style often establishes or mitigates one's authority and credibility. But it should not be assumed, either, that style simply adds on a pathetic or ethical appeal to the core, logical content. Style is very much part of the appeal through logos (appeal to logic and reason), especially considering the fact that schemes of repetition (e.g. outlines) serve to produce coherence and clarity, which are attributes of the appeal to reason. In other words, most pieces of writing have all three appeals (pathos, ethos, logos), but one or the other may be more dominate depending on the purpose of the piece of writing. Persuasive: For this writing style, the writer is trying to convince the reader of the validity of a certain position or argument. Persuasive writing includes the writers’ opinions, and provides justifications and evidence to support their claims. Download 1.48 Mb. Do'stlaringiz bilan baham: 
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