O`ktamova Marjonaning “Etymological doublets” Mavzusidagi kurs ishi

2 Etimological and pro-etimological doublets in English
Etymological doublets represent one of the oldest and most extensive lexico-semantic categories. Etymological doublets are words that etymologically go back to the same basis, but have different meanings, pronunciation and spelling in the language. For example: catch and chase, gaol and jail, channel and canal [1, 68]. Note: doublets are, of course, when there are two such words. If there are, say, three of them, then these are no longer twins, but triplet. Consider the etymological pair of words channel and canal. Both of them are French origin and come from the old French chanel, chenel, which dates back to the Latin canālis ‘tube, channel’. The word channel appeared in English in the 13th century. with the value‘the channel of flowing water, the channel’ and later acquired new values: ‘course, direction’ (XIV century), ‘gutter’ (XVII century). In the XV century³ English again borrows the same French word in an excellent, albeit adjacent to the previous, meaning liquid supply pipe, channel’. The word is fixed in the language in the form of canal due to Latinization. The time the words appeared inthe language affected the pronunciation:
- in the first case, the stress was transferred to the first syllable according to the rules of English accentuation (channel [΄t∫ænl]), which means that the word was completely assimilated in the language; - the second word emphasized the last syllable (canal [kə΄næl]), which is typical for words of French origin, not fully adapted in the English language. In modern English, words exist with different meanings: the word channel means ‘strait, channel’ and is used to denote the natural, natural flow of water; while the word canal has a narrowerscope, denoting ‘artificial channel’ or ‘channel, passage’ in medical terminology. Latin quies, quietus ‘peace’, ‘rest’, borrowed directly into English, has the form quiet [ˊkwaɪət]. The same word that came through the French language exists in the language as quite [kwaɪt] - ‘completelcentury. and comes from the old French substantiated adjective jurnal, jornal, which, in turn, comes from the late Latin diurnālis ‘daytime’. A century later, in English, the adjective diurnal appears, which comes directly from the Latin diurnālis. In modern English, the word journal is a noun and means 'magazinenewspaper (serious, specialized publication', 'diary, journal of records'). In addition, the word also exists as an adjective, meaning 'daytime', but is used only in poetic works the adjective diurnal has a rather limited scope - scientific and technical, meaning 'dailyhostel, which are not Latin-French doublets, but rather French doublets of Latin origin. The word hostel(hostel) is an earlier French borrowing, as reflected in its spelling. The word hotel entered the English language only in the 17th century, when French pronunciation and graphics underwent changes. It is known that words borrowed from the French by the English language in the Middle English period were completely assimilated in the acceptor language . So, in the word hostel [ˊhɔstəl] the stress falls on the first syllable, which is typical for words of that period, which are perceived by the carriers as original. As for the word hotel [ˏhəʊˊtel], it retained the French type of stress on the last syllable, which is typical for words borrowed in the New English period. Most of the currently existing etymological doublets are of Roman origin. However, there are also Anglo-Scandinavian doublets (disk and disc; shirt and International Words. Expanding global contacts result in the considerable growth of international vocabulary. All languages depend for their changes upon the cultural and social matrix in which they operate and various contacts between nations are part of this matrix reflected in vocabulary.It is often the case that a word is borrowed by several languages, and not just by one. Words of identical origin that occur in several languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from one ultimate source are called international words.
Such words usually convey concepts which are significant in the field of communication, cf.: Eng. telephone, organization, inauguration, consilium, Ukr. телефон, організація, інаугурація, консиліум).
International words play an especially prominent part in various terminological systems including the vocabulary of science, industry and art. Many of them are of Latin and Greek origin. Most names of sciences are international, cf.: philosophy, mathematics, physics, chemistry, biology, medicine, linguistics, lexicology. There are also numerous terms of art in this group: music, theatre, drama, tragedy, comedy, artist, primadonna.
The etymological sources of this vocabulary reflect the history of world culture. Thus, for example, the mankind’s cultural debt to Italy is reflected in the great number of Italian words connected with architecture, painting and especially music that are borrowed into most European languages: allegro, andante, aria, arioso, barcarole, baritone (and other names for voices), concert, duet, opera (and other names for pieces of music), piano and many many more. It is quite natural that political terms frequently occur in the international group of borrowings: politics, policy, revolution, progress, democracy, communism, anti-militarism.⁴ 20th c. scientific and technological advances brought a great number of new international words: atomic, antibiotic, radio, television, sputnik. The rate of change in technology, political, social and artistic life has been greatly accelerated in the last decade and so has the rate of growth of international wordstock. A few examples of comparatively new words due to the progress of science will suffice to illustrate the importance of international vocabulary: algorithm, antenna, antibiotic, automation, bionics, cybernetics, entropy, gene, genetic code, graph, microelectronics, microminiaturisation, quant, quasars, pulsars, ribosome, etc. All these show sufficient likeness in English, French, Russian, Ukrainian and several other languages. The international wordstock is also growing due to the influx of exotic borrowed words like anaconda, bungalow, kraal, orang-outang, sari, etc. These come from many different sources. The English vocabulary penetrates into other languages. We find numerous English words in the field of sport: football, out, match, tennis, volley-ball, baseball, hockey, cricket, rugby, tennis, golf, time, etc. A large number of English words are to be found in the vocabulary pertaining to clothes: jersey, pullover, sweater, nylon, tweed, etc. Cinema and different forms of entertainment are also a source of many international words of English origin: film, club, cocktail, jazz. At least some of the Russian words borrowed into English and many other languages and thus international should also be mentioned: balalaika, bolshevik, cosmonaut, czar, intelligentsia, Kremlin, mammoth, rouble, sambo, soviet, sputnik, steppe, vodka. Fruits and foodstuffs imported from exotic countries often transport their names too and, being simultaneously imported to many countries, become international: coffee, cocoa, chocolate, coca-cola, banana, mango, avocado, grapefruit.
It is important to note that international words are mainly borrowings. The outward similarity of such words as the Eng. son, the Germ. Sohn and the Rus. сын should not lead one to the quite false conclusion that they are international words. They represent the Indo-Euroреаn group of the native element in each respective language and are cognates, i. e. words of the same etymological root, and not borrowings. In etymology, two or more words in the same language are called doublets or etymological twins (or possibly triplets, etc.) when they have the same etymological root but have entered the language through different routes. They differ to a certain degree in form, meaning and current usage. Etymological twins are usually a result of chronologically separate borrowing from a source language. In the case of English, this usually means once from French during the Norman invasion, and again later, after the word had evolved. e.g. warranty (гарантия) and guarantee. Another possibility is borrowing from both a language and its daughter language (usually Latin and some other Romance language). In many cases involving Indo-European languages, words such as beef and cow, the one Germanic the other Romance, actually do share the same proto-Indo-European root. The forward linguistic path also reflects cultural and historical transactions; often the name of an animal comes from Germanic while the name of its cooked meat comes from Romance. Since English is unusual in that it borrowed heavily from two distinct branches of the same linguistic family tree, it has a relatively high number of this latter type of etymological twin.
Sometimes etymological doublets are the result of borrowing different grammatical forms of the same word, e.g. the Comparative degree of Latin «super» was «superior» which was borrowed into English with the meaning «high in some quality or rank». The Superlative degree (Latin «supremus»)in English «supreme» with the meaning «outstanding», «prominent». So «superior» and «supreme» are etymological doublets. The layers of Latin borrowings in English. Their influenceon the system of English W-building Among words of Romanic origin borrowed from Latin during the period when the British Isles were a part of the Roman Empire, there are such words as: street, port, wall etc. Many Latin and Greek words came into English during the Adoption of Christianity in the 6-th century. These borrowings are usually called classical borrowings. Here belong Latin words: alter, cross, dean, and Greek words: church, angel, devil, anthem.⁵Latin and Greek borrowings appeared in English during the Middle English period due to the Great Revival of Learning. These are mostly scientific words because Latin was the language of science at the time. These words were not used as frequently as the words of the Old English period, therefore some of them were partly assimilated grammatically, e.g. formula - formulae. Here also belong such words as: memorandum, minimum, maximum, veto etc. Classical borrowings continue to appear in Modern English as well. Mostly they are words formed with the help of Latin and Greek morphemes. There are quite a lot of them in medicine (appendicitis, aspirin), in chemistry (acid, valency, alkali), in technique (engine, antenna, biplane, airdrome), in politics (socialism, militarism), names of sciences (zoology, physics). In philology most of terms are of Greek origin (homonym, archaism, lexicography).
The Norman conquest and its impact on English
The largest group of borrowings are French borrowings. Most of them came into English during the Norman conquest. French influenced not only the vocabulary of English but also its spelling, because documents were written by French scribes. As it was difficult for French scribes to copy English texts they substituted the letter «u» before «v», «m», «n» and the digraph «th» by the letter «o» to escape the combination of many vertical lines. The were also some phonetical changes