- Prepositions (in, on, at, about, across, beyond, etc.)
- Modals (may, might, can, could, must, shall, should, etc.)
Morphological Properties of English Verbs - Third person singular subject
What are participles? - Verb forms that act like adjectives or nouns:
- Mown grass
- Participle in an adjective position
- Mowing is fun
- Participle in a noun position
Other uses of English Participles - The grass was mown.
- I was mowing the grass.
Distributional criteria for parts of speech Template 1: adjectives - Great ideas spread quickly.
- Interesting ideas spread quickly.
- Stupid ideas spread quickly.
- Colorless ideas spread quickly.
- Words of the same category have the same distribution. For example, adjectives can come before nouns.
Template 2: adjectives - They are very adjective.
- They are very nice/gentlemanly/ladylike.
- *They are very gentlemen/ladies/faxes.
- *They are very starve/die.
- *They are very to/at/on.
- They are very in.
- They are very off.
- Very adverb or adjective
- Very slow
- Very slowly
- Very badly
- Very happy
Template 4: adverb - He treats her adverb.
- He treats her well.
- He treats her arrogantly.
- He treats her nicely.
- He treats her nice.
- He treats her good.
Template 5: nouns - noun can be a pain in the neck.
- Television can be a pain in the neck.
- Linguistics can be a pain in the neck.
- This can be a pain in the neck.
- *Happy can be a pain in the neck.
- *From can be a pain in the neck.
- *The can be a pain in the neck.
- *Breathe can be a pain in the neck.
Template 6: verbs - They/it can verb.
- They/it can stay/leave/die/cry.
- *They/it can gorgeous/cute/trendy.
- *They/it can from/to/in/off/on.
- *They/it can door/bible/gold/camera.
Template 7: Modals - Modal I be frank?
- Can I be frank?
- Must I be frank?
- Should I be frank?
- Need I be frank?
Template 8: determiner - He wrote determiner other works.
- He wrote the/all/these/no/few/many other works.
- *He wrote despair/be/have other works.
- *He wrote student other works.
- ?He wrote successful other works.
- Right preposition.
- Right up/down/in/on/across the street
- Right down the stairs
- Right in the drawer
- Right from school
- Right across the street
- *He right despaired.
- *She chose right this one.
Problems - Problems with Radford’s templates
- Problems for the assumption of discrete categories
Template 1 problem - Templates need to be more exact:
- Great ideas spread quickly.
- The ideas spread quickly.
- Do great and the have the same part of speech?
Template 5: need subcategories - Cat can be a pain in the neck.
- The template only works for
- Plural nouns (e.g., cats)
- Mass nouns (e.g., water)
- Pronouns (e.g., he)
- Proper nouns (e.g., Sam)
- Cat is a singular count noun.
Count and mass nouns - Singular count nouns must occur with a determiner:
- The cat was a pain in the neck.
- A cat can be a pain in the neck.
- *Cat was a pain in the neck.
- Plural nouns and mass nouns can occur without a determiner.
- Cats can be a pain in the neck.
- Water can be a pain in the neck.
- Singular mass nouns change their meaning when they occur with “a”
- a water
- a coffee
- ?An information
Other things to take into account - He can be a pain in the neck.
- *Him can be a pain in the neck.
- This music rocks.
- These CDs rock.
Template 6: Need subcategories - *They can handle.
- *They can accommodate.
- *They can harbor.
- The template only works for intransitive verbs.
- These verbs need another noun after them.
- They can handle boredom.
- They can accommodate changes.
- They can harbor criminals.
Template 9: prepositions - She looked at him right strangely. (dialect)
- She is right pretty. (dialect)
- You look a right clown. (Oxford English Dictionary)
- The government made a right mess of it. (Oxford English Dictionary)
Words can have more than one part of speech - He needs to see a doctor. (verb)
- Need I be frank? (modal)
- I feel a need to explore my roots. (noun)
Importance to you - The distributional theory of parts of speech is problematic, but it is your best bet for your grammar writing project.
- When you are building a lexicon, you will decide on parts of speech for words by using template tests and morphological tests.
In-class exercise - Goals:
- Interpret the results of distributional tests for parts of speech.
- Discover that some words are problematic for the distributional theory of parts of speech.
- Reminder:
- When you know a language, you know a complex body of unconscious knowledge.
Words that evade classification - More tests for prepositions and adjectives
- Attempt to categorize like, worth, near, opposite, due, close, far
Predicative and non-predicative adjuncts - Cambridge Grammar of the English Language, page 604
- Adjectives: predicative modifiers
- Tired of the ship, the captain saw an island on which to land.
- Tired is predicated of the captain.
- *Tired of the ship, there was a small island.
- Prepositions: non-predicative modifiers
- Ahead of the ship, the captain saw an island on which to land.
- Ahead of the ship, there was an island on which to land.
Become, Feel, Seem, Look - Adjectives
- He became/seemed/felt/looked happy
- Prepositions
- *He became/seemed/felt/looked in the park.
- Exceptions
- He became/seemed/felt/looked under the weather
- He became/seemed/felt/looked out of his mind
Degree modification - Adjectives
- Very smart
- Smarter
- Smart enough
- *very much smart
- Prepositions
- *very in the room
- ?very much in the room
- *more on the table
- ?This book is more on the table than that one.
- ?This book is enough on the table not to fall.
- ?This book is on the table enough not to fall.
- This book is very much on the table.
- ?This book is more about linguistics than that one.
Followed by bare NP or PP - Adjectives: Cannot be followed by bare NP
- Fond of Sam
- *Fond Sam
- Happy about the promotion
- *Happy the promotion
- Prepositions: Can be followed by bare NP
- In the room
- About linguistics
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